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THE MEANING OF IT ALL
by Richard P. Feynman
Richard P. Feynman was one of this century's most brilliant theoretical physic
ists and original thinkers. Born in Far Rockaway, New York, in 1918, he studie
d at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he graduated with a BS i
n 1939. He went on to Princeton and received his Ph.D. in 1942. During the war
years he worked at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. He became Professor
of Theoretical Physics at Cornell University, where he worked with Hans Bethe.
He all but rebuilt the theory of quantum electrodynamics and it was for this
work that he shared the Nobel Prize in 1965. His simplified rules of calculati
on became standard tools of theoretical analysis in both quantum electrodynami
cs and high-energy physics. Feynman was a visiting professor at the California
Institute of Technology in 1950, where he later accepted a permanent faculty
appointment, and became Richard Chace Tolman Professor of Theoretical Physics
in 1959. He had an extraordinary ability to communicate his science to audienc
es at all levels, and was a well-known and popular lecturer. Richard Feynman d
ied in 1988 after a long illness. Freeman Dyson, of the Institute for Advanced
Study in Princeton, New Jersey, called him 'the most original mind of his gen
eration', while in its obituary The New York Times described him as 'arguably
the most brilliant, iconoclastic and influential of the postwar generation of
theoretical physicists'.
A number of collections and adaptations of his lectures have been published, i
ncluding The Feynman Lectures on Physics, QED (Penguin, 1990), The Character o
f Physical Law (Penguin, 1992), Six Easy Pieces (Penguin, 1998), The Meaning o
f It All (Penguin, 1999) and Six Not-So-Easy
Pieces (Allen Lane, 1998; Penguin, 1999). The Feynman Lectures on Gravitation
and The Feynman Lectures on Computation are both forthcoming in Penguin. His m
emoirs, Surely You're Joking, Mr Feynman, were published in 1985.
The Meaning of It All
Richard P. Feynman
Contents
I.The Uncertainty of Science
II.The Uncertainty of Values
III.This Unscientific Age
These lectures, given in April 1963, are published here for the first time. We
are grateful to Carl Feynman and Michelle Feynman for making this book possib
le.
I
The Uncertainty of Science
I WANT TO ADDRESS myself directly to the impact of science on man's ideas in o
ther fields, a subject Mr. John Danz particularly wanted to be discussed. In t
he first of these lectures I will talk about the nature of science and emphasi
ze particularly the existence of doubt and uncertainty. In the second lecture
I will discuss the impact of scientific views on political questions, in parti
cular the question of national enemies, and on religious questions. And in the
third lecture I will describe how society looks to me-I could say how society
looks to a scientific man, but it is only how it looks to me-and what future
scientific discoveries may produce in terms of social problems.
What do I know of religion and politics? Several friends in the physics depart
ments here and in other places laughed and said, "I'd like to come and hear wh
at you have to say. I never knew you were interested very much in those things
." They mean, of course, I am interested, but I would not dare to talk about t
hem.
In talking about the impact of ideas in one field on ideas in another field, o
ne is always apt to make a fool of oneself. In these days of specialization th
ere are too few people who have such a deep understanding of two departments o
f our knowledge that they do not make fools of themselves in one or the other.
The ideas I wish to describe are old ideas. There is practically nothing that
I am going to say tonight that could not easily have been said by philosophers
of the seventeenth century. Why repeat all this? Because there are new genera
tions born every day. Because there are great ideas developed in the history o
f man, and these ideas do not last unless they are passed purposely and clearl
y from generation to generation.
Many old ideas have become such common knowledge that it is not necessary to t
alk about or explain them again. But the ideas associated with the problems of
the development of science, as far as I can see by looking around me, are not
of the kind that everyone appreciates. It is true that a large number of peop
le do appreciate them. And in a university particularly most people appreciate
them, and you may be the wrong audience for me.
Now in this difficult business of talking about the impact of the ideas of one
field on those of another, I shall start at the end that I know. I do know ab
out science. I know its ideas and its methods, its attitudes toward knowledge,
the sources of its progress, its mental discipline. And therefore, in this fi
rst lecture, I shall talk about the science that I know, and I shall leave the
more ridiculous of my statements for the next two lectures, at which, I assum
e, the general law is that the audiences will be smaller.
What is science? The word is usually used to mean one of three things, or a mi
xture of them. I do not think we need to be precise-it is not always a good id
ea to be too precise. Science means, sometimes, a special method of finding th
ings out. Sometimes it means the body of knowledge arising from the things fou
nd out. It may also mean the new things you can do when you have found somethi
ng out, or the actual doing of new things. This last field is usually called t
echnology-but if you look at the science section in Time magazine you will fin
d it covers about 50 percent what new things are found out and about 50 percen
t what new things can be and are being done. And so the popular definition of
science is partly technology, too.
I want to discuss these three aspects of science in reverse order. I will begi
n with the new things that you can do-that is, with technology. The most obvio
us characteristic of science is its application, the fact that as a consequenc
e of science one has a power to do things. And the effect this power has had n
eed hardly be mentioned. The whole industrial revolution would almost have bee
n impossible without the development of science. The possibilities today of pr
oducing quantities of food adequate for such a large population, of controllin
g sickness-the very fact that there can be free men without the necessity of s
lavery for full production-are very likely the result of the development of sc
ientific means of production.
Now this power to do things carries with it no instructions on how to use it,
whether to use it for good or for evil. The product of this power is either go
od or evil, depending on how it is used. We like improved production, but we h
ave problems with automation. We are happy with the development of medicine, a
nd then we worry about the number of births and the fact that no one dies from
the diseases we have eliminated. Or else, with the same knowledge of bacteria
, we have hidden laboratories in which men are working as hard as they can to
develop bacteria for which no one else will be able to find a cure. We are hap
py with the development of air transportation and are impressed by the great a
irplanes, but we are aware also of the severe horrors of air war. We are pleas
ed by the ability to communicate between nations, and then we worry about the
fact that we can be snooped upon so easily. We are excited by the fact that sp
ace can now be entered; well, we will undoubtedly have a difficulty there, too
. The most famous of all these imbalances is the development of nuclear energy
and its obvious problems.
Is science of any value?
I think a power to do something is of value.Whether the result is a good thing
or a bad thing depends on how it is used, but the power is a value.
Once in Hawaii I was taken to see a Buddhist temple. In the temple a man said,
"I am going to tell you something that you will never forget." And then he sa
id, "To every man is given the key to the gates of heaven. The same key opens
the gates of hell."
And so it is with science. In a way it is a key to the gates of heaven, and th
e same key opens the gates of hell, and we do not have any instructions as to
which is which gate. Shall we throw away the key and never have a way to enter
the gates of heaven? Or shall we struggle with the problem of which is the be
st way to use the key? That is, of course, a very serious question, but I thin
k that we cannot deny the value of the key to the gates of heaven.
All the major problems of the relations between society and science lie in thi
s same area. When the scientist is told that he must be more responsible for h
is effects on society, it is the applications of science that are referred to.
If you work to develop nuclear energy you must realize also that it can be us
ed harmfully. Therefore, you would expect that, in a discussion of this kind b
y a scientist, this would be the most important topic. But I will not talk abo
ut it further. I think that to say these are scientific problems is an exagger
ation. They are far more humanitarian problems. The fact that how to work the
power is clear, but how to control it is not, is something not so scientific a
nd is not something that the scientist knows so much about.
Let me illustrate why I do not want to talk about this. Some time ago, in abou
t 1949 or 1950, I went to Brazil to teach physics. There was a Point Four prog
ram in those days, which was very exciting-everyone was going to help the unde
rdeveloped countries. What they needed, of course, was technical know-how.
In Brazil I lived in the city of Rio. In Rio there are hills on which are home
s made with broken pieces of wood from old signs and so forth. The people are
extremely poor. They have no sewers and no water. In order to get water they c
arry old gasoline cans on their heads down the hills. They go to a place where
a new building is being built, because there they have water for mixing cemen
t. The people fill their cans with water and carry them up the hills. And late
r you see the water dripping down the hill in dirty sewage. It is a pitiful th
ing.
Right next to these hills are the exciting buildings of the Copacabana beach,
beautiful apartments, and so on.
And I said to my friends in the Point Four program, "Is this a problem of tech
nical know-how? They don't know how to put a pipe up the hill? They don't know
how to put a pipe to the top of the hill so that the people can at least walk
uphill with the empty cans and downhill with the full cans?"
So it is not a problem of technical know-how. Certainly not, because in the ne
ighboring apartment buildings there are pipes, and there are pumps. We realize
that now. Now we think it is a problem of economic assistance, and we do not
know whether that really works or not. And the question of how much it costs t
o put a pipe and a pump to the top of each of the hills is not one that seems
worth discussing, to me.
Although we do not know how to solve the problem, I would like to point out th
at we tried two things, technical know-how and economic assistance. We are dis
couraged with them both, and we are trying something else. As you will see lat
er, I find this encouraging. I think that to keep trying new solutions is the
way to do everything.
Those, then are the practical aspects of science, the new things that you can
do. They are so obvious that we do not need to speak about them further.
The next aspect of science is its contents, the things that have been found ou
t. This is the yield. This is the gold. This is the excitement, the pay you ge
t for all the disciplined thinking and hard work. The work is not done for the
sake of an application. It is done for the excitement of what is found out. P
erhaps most of you know this. But to those of you who do not know it, it is al
most impossible for me to convey in a lecture this important aspect, this exci
ting part, the real reason for science. And without understanding this you mis
s the whole point. You cannot understand science and its relation to anything
else unless you understand and appreciate the great adventure of our time. You
do not live in your time unless you understand that this is a tremendous adve
nture and a wild and exciting thing.
Do you think it is dull? It isn't. It is most difficult to convey, but perhaps
I can give some idea of it. Let me start anywhere, with any idea.
For instance, the ancients believed that the earth was the back of an elephant
that stood on a tortoise that swam in a bottomless sea. Of course, what held
up the sea was another question. They did not know the answer.
The belief of the ancients was the result of imagination. It was a poetic and
beautiful idea. Look at the way we see it today. Is that a dull idea? The worl
d is a spinning ball, and people are held on it on all sides, some of them ups
ide down. And we turn like a spit in front of a great fire. We whirl around th
e sun. That is more romantic, more exciting. And what holds us? The force of g
ravitation, which is not only a thing of the earth but is the thing that makes
the earth round in the first place, holds the sun together and keeps us runni
ng around the sun in our perpetual attempt to stay away. This gravity holds it
s sway not only on the stars but between the stars; it holds them in the great
galaxies for miles and miles in all directions.
This universe has been described by many, but it just goes on, with its edge a
s unknown as the bottom of the bottomless sea of the other idea-just as myster
ious, just as awe-inspiring, and just as incomplete as the poetic pictures tha
t came before.
But see that the imagination of nature is far, far greater than the imaginatio
n of man. No one who did not have some inkling of this through observations co
uld ever have imagined such a marvel as nature is.
Or the earth and time. Have you read anywhere, by any poet, anything about tim
e that compares with real time, with the long, slow process of evolution? Nay,
I went too quickly. First, there was the earth without anything alive on it.
For billions of years this ball was spinning with its sunsets and its waves an
d the sea and the noises, and there was no thing alive to appreciate it. Can y
ou conceive, can you appreciate or fit into your ideas what can be the meaning
of a world without a living thing on it? We are so used to looking at the wor
ld from the point of view of living things that we cannot understand what it m
eans not to be alive, and yet most of the time the world had nothing alive on
it. And in most places in the universe today there probably is nothing alive.
Or life itself. The internal machinery of life, the chemistry of the parts, is
something beautiful. And it turns out that all life is interconnected with al
l other life. There is a part of chlorophyll, an important chemical in the oxy
gen processes in plants, that has a kind of square pattern; it is a rather pre
tty ring called a benzine ring. And far removed from the plants are animals li
ke ourselves, and in our oxygen-containing systems, in the blood, the hemoglob
in, there are the same interesting and peculiar square rings. There is iron in
the center of them instead of magnesium, so they are not green but red, but t
hey are the same rings.
The proteins of bacteria and the proteins of humans are the same. In fact it h
as recently been found that the protein-making machinery in the bacteria can b
e given orders from material from the red cells to produce red cell proteins.
So close is life to life. The universality of the deep chemistry of living thi
ngs is indeed a fantastic and beautiful thing. And all the time we human being
s have been too proud even to recognize our kinship with the animals.
Or there are the atoms. Beautiful-mile upon mile of one ball after another bal
l in some repeating pattern in a crystal. Things that look quiet and still, li
ke a glass of water with a covered top that has been sitting for several days,
are active all the time; the atoms are leaving the surface, bouncing around i
nside, and coming back. What looks still to our crude eyes is a wild and dynam
ic dance.
And, again, it has been discovered that all the world is made of the same atom
s, that the stars are of the same stuff as ourselves. It then becomes a questi
on of where our stuff came from. Not just where did life come from, or where d
id the earth come from, but where did the stuff of life and of the earth come
from? It looks as if it was belched from some exploding star, much as some of
the stars are exploding now. So this piece of dirt waits four and a half billi
on years and evolves and changes, and now a strange creature stands here with
instruments and talks to the strange creatures in the audience. What a wonderf
ul world!
Or take the physiology of human beings. It makes no difference what I talk abo
ut. If you look closely enough at anything, you will see that there is nothing
more exciting than the truth, the pay dirt of the scientist, discovered by hi
s painstaking efforts.
In physiology you can think of pumping blood, the exciting movements of a girl
jumping a jump rope. What goes on inside? The blood pumping, the interconnect
ing nerves-how quickly the influences of the muscle nerves feed right back to
the brain to say, "Now we have touched the ground, now increase the tension so
I do not hurt the heels." And as the girl dances up and down, there is anothe
r set of muscles that is fed from another set of nerves that says, "One, two,
three, O'Leary, one, two, ..." And while she does that, perhaps she smiles at
the professor of physiology who is watching her. That is involved, too!
And then electricity The forces of attraction, of plus and minus, are so stron
g that in any normal substance all the plusses and minuses are carefully balan
ced out, everything pulled together with everything else. For a long time no o
ne even noticed the phenomenon of electricity, except once in a while when the
y rubbed a piece of amber and it attracted a piece of paper. And yet today we
find, by playing with these things, that we have a tremendous amount of machin
ery inside. Yet science is still not thoroughly appreciated.
To give an example, I read Faraday's Chemical History of a Candle, a set of si
x Christmas lectures for children. The point of Faraday's lectures was that no
matter what you look at, if you look at it closely enough, you are involved i
n the entire universe. And so he got, by looking at every feature of the candl
e, into combustion, chemistry, etc. But the introduction of the book, in descr
ibing Faraday's life and some of his discoveries, explained that he had discov
ered that the amount of electricity necessary to perform electrolysis of chemi
cal substances is proportional to the number of atoms which are separated divi
ded by the valence. It further explained that the principles he discovered are
used today in chrome plating and the anodic coloring of aluminum, as well as
in dozens of other industrial applications. I do not like that statement. Here
is what Faraday said about his own discovery: "The atoms of matter are in som
e ways endowed or associated with electrical powers, to which they owe their m
ost striking qualities, amongst them their mutual chemical affinity." He had d
iscovered that the thing that determined how the atoms went together, the thin
g that determined the combinations of iron and oxygen which make iron oxide is
that some of them are electrically plus and some of them are electrically min
us, and they attract each other in definite proportions. He also discovered th
at electricity comes in units, in atoms. Both were important discoveries, but
most exciting was that this was one of the most dramatic moments in the histor
y of science, one of those rare moments when two great fields come together an
d are unified. He suddenly found that two apparently different things were dif
ferent aspects of the same thing. Electricity was being studied, and chemistry
was being studied. Suddenly they were two aspects of the same thing-chemical
changes with the results of electrical forces. And they are still understood t
hat way. So to say merely that the principles are used in chrome plating is in
excusable.
And the newspapers, as you know, have a standard line for every discovery made
in physiology today: "The discoverer said that the discovery may have uses in
the cure of cancer." But they cannot explain the value of the thing itself.
Trying to understand the way nature works involves a most terrible test of hum
an reasoning ability. It involves subtle trickery, beautiful tightropes of log
ic on which one has to walk in order not to make a mistake in predicting what
will happen. The quantum mechanical and the relativity ideas are examples of t
his.
The third aspect of my subject is that of science as a method of finding thing
s out. This method is based on the principle that observation is the judge of
whether something is so or not. All other aspects and characteristics of scien
ce can be understood directly when we understand that observation is the ultim
ate and final judge of the truth of an idea. But "prove" used in this way real
ly means "test," in the same way that a hundred-proof alcohol is a test of the
alcohol, and for people today the idea really should be translated as, "The e
xception tests the rule." Or, put another way, "The exception proves that the
rule is wrong." That is the principle of science. If there is an exception to
any rule, and if it can be proved by observation, that rule is wrong.
The exceptions to any rule are most interesting in themselves, for they show u
s that the old rule is wrong. And it is most exciting, then, to find out what
the right rule, if any, is. The exception is studied, along with other conditi
ons that produce similar effects. The scientist tries to find more exceptions
and to determine the characteristics of the exceptions, a process that is cont
inually exciting as it develops. He does not try to avoid showing that the rul
es are wrong; there is progress and excitement in the exact opposite. He tries
to prove himself wrong as quickly as possible.
The principle that observation is the judge imposes a severe limitation to the
kind of questions that can be answered. They are limited to questions that yo
u can put this way: "if I do this, what will happen?" There are ways to try it
and see. Questions like, "should I do this?" and "what is the value of this?"
are not of the same kind.
But if a thing is not scientific, if it cannot be subjected to the test of obs
ervation, this does not mean that it is dead, or wrong, or stupid. We are not
trying to argue that science is somehow good and other things are somehow not
good. Scientists take all those things that can be analyzed by observation, an
d thus the things called science are found out. But there are some things left
out, for which the method does not work. This does not mean that those things
are unimportant. They are, in fact, in many ways the most important. In any d
ecision for action, when you have to make up your mind what to do, there is al
ways a "should" involved, and this cannot be worked out from "if I do this, wh
at will happen?" alone. You say, "Sure, you see what will happen, and then you
decide whether you want it to happen or not." But that is the step the scient
ist cannot take. You can figure out what is going to happen, but then you have
to decide whether you like it that way or not.
There are in science a number of technical consequences that follow from the p
rinciple of observation as judge. For example, the observation cannot be rough
. You have to be very careful. There may have been a piece of dirt in the appa
ratus that made the color change; it was not what you thought. You have to che
ck the observations very carefully, and then recheck them, to be sure that you
understand what all the conditions are and that you did not misinterpret what
you did.
It is interesting that this thoroughness, which is a virtue, is often misunder
stood. When someone says a thing has been done scientifically, often all he me
ans is that it has been done thoroughly. I have heard people talk of the "scie
ntific" extermination of the Jews in Germany. There was nothing scientific abo
ut it. It was only thorough. There was no question of making observations and
then checking them in order to determine something. In that sense, there were
"scientific" exterminations of people in Roman times and in other periods when
science was not so far developed as it is today and not much attention was pa
id to observation. In such cases, people should say "thorough" or "thoroughgoi
ng," instead of "scientific."
There are a number of special techniques associated with the game of making ob
servations, and much of what is called the philosophy of science is concerned
with a discussion of these techniques. The interpretation of a result is an ex
ample. To take a trivial instance, there is a famous joke about a man who comp
lains to a friend of a mysterious phenomenon. The white horses on his farm eat
more than the black horses. He worries about this and cannot understand it, u
ntil his friend suggests that maybe he has more white horses than black ones.
It sounds ridiculous, but think how many times similar mistakes are made in ju
dgments of various kinds. You say, "My sister had a cold, and in two weeks ...
" It is one of those cases, if you think about it, in which there were more wh
ite horses. Scientific reasoning requires a certain discipline, and we should
try to teach this discipline, because even on the lowest level such errors are
unnecessary today.
Another important characteristic of science is its objectivity. It is necessar
y to look at the results of observation objectively, because you, the experime
nter, might like one result better than another. You perform the experiment se
veral times, and because of irregularities, like pieces of dirt falling in, th
e result varies from time to time. You do not have everything under control. Y
ou like the result to be a certain way, so the times it comes out that way, yo
u say, "See, it comes out this particular way." The next time you do the exper
iment it comes out different. Maybe there was a piece of dirt in it the first
time, but you ignore it.
These things seem obvious, but people do not pay enough attention to them in d
eciding scientific questions or questions on the periphery of science. There c
ould be a certain amount of sense, for example, in the way you analyze the que
stion of whether stocks went up or down because of what the President said or
did not say.
Another very important technical point is that the more specific a rule is, th
e more interesting it is. The more definite the statement, the more interestin
g it is to test. If someone were to propose that the planets go around the sun
because all planet matter has a kind of tendency for movement, a kind of moti
lity, let us call it an "oomph," this theory could explain a number of other p
henomena as well. So this is a good theory, is it not? No. It is nowhere near
as good as a proposition that the planets move around the sun under the influe
nce of a central force which varies exactly inversely as the square of the dis
tance from the center. The second theory is better because it is so specific;
it is so obviously unlikely to be the result of chance. It is so definite that
the barest error in the movement can show that it is wrong; but the planets c
ould wobble all over the place, and, according to the first theory, you could
say, "Well, that is the funny behavior of the 'oomph.'"
So the more specific the rule, the more powerful it is, the more liable it is
to exceptions, and the more interesting and valuable it is to check.
Words can be meaningless. If they are used in such a way that no sharp conclus
ions can be drawn, as in my example of "oomph," then the proposition they stat
e is almost meaningless, because you can explain almost anything by the assert
ion that things have a tendency to motility. A great deal has been made of thi
s by philosophers, who say that words must be defined extremely precisely. Act
ually, I disagree somewhat with this; I think that extreme precision of defini
tion is often not worthwhile, and sometimes it is not possible-in fact mostly
it is not possible, but I will not get into that argument here.
Most of what many philosophers say about science is really on the technical as
pects involved in trying to make sure the method works pretty well. Whether th
ese technical points would be useful in a field in which observation is not th
e judge I have no idea. I am not going to say that everything has to be done t
he same way when a method of testing different from observation is used. In a
different field perhaps it is not so important to be careful of the meaning of
words or that the rules be specific, and so on. I do not know.
In all of this I have left out something very important. I said that observati
on is the judge of the truth of an idea. But where does the idea come from? Th
e rapid progress and development of science requires that human beings invent
something to test.
It was thought in the Middle Ages that people simply make many observations, a
nd the observations themselves suggest the laws. But it does not work that way
. It takes much more imagination than that. So the next thing we have to talk
about is where the new ideas come from. Actually, it does not make any differe
nce, as long as they come. We have a way of checking whether an idea is correc
t or not that has nothing to do with where it came from. We simply test it aga
inst observation. So in science we are not interested in where an idea comes f
rom.
There is no authority who decides what is a good idea. We have lost the need t
o go to an authority to find out whether an idea is true or not. We can read a
n authority and let him suggest something; we can try it out and find out if i
t is true or not. If it is not true, so much the worse- so the "authorities" l
ose some of their "authority."
The relations among scientists were at first very argumentative, as they are a
mong most people. This was true in the early days of physics, for example. But
in physics today the relations are extremely good. A scientific argument is l
ikely to involve a great deal of laughter and uncertainty on both sides, with
both sides thinking up experiments and offering to bet on the outcome. In phys
ics there are so many accumulated observations that it is almost impossible to
think of a new idea which is different from all the ideas that have been thou
ght of before and yet that agrees with all the observations that have already
been made. And so if you get anything new from anyone, anywhere, you welcome i
t, and you do not argue about why the other person says it is so.
Many sciences have not developed this far, and the situation is the way it was
in the early days of physics, when there was a lot of arguing because there w
ere not so many observations. I bring this up because it is interesting that h
uman relationships, if there is an independent way of judging truth, can becom
e unargumentative.
Most people find it surprising that in science there is no interest in the bac
kground of the author of an idea or in his motive in expounding it. You listen
, and if it sounds like a thing worth trying, a thing that could be tried, is
different, and is not obviously contrary to something observed before, it gets
exciting and worthwhile. You do not have to worry about how long he has studi
ed or why he wants you to listen to him. In that sense it makes no difference
where the ideas come from. Their real origin is unknown; we call it the imagin
ation of the human brain, the creative imagination-it is known; it is just one
of those "oomphs."
It is surprising that people do not believe that there is imagination in scien
ce. It is a very interesting kind of imagination, unlike that of the artist. T
he great difficulty is in trying to imagine something that you have never seen
, that is consistent in every detail with what has already been seen, and that
is different from what has been thought of; furthermore, it must be definite
and not a vague proposition. That is indeed difficult.
Incidentally, the fact that there are rules at all to be checked is a kind of
miracle; that it is possible to find a rule, like the inverse square law of gr
avitation, is some sort of miracle. It is not understood at all, but it leads
to the possibility of prediction-that means it tells you what you would expect
to happen in an experiment you have not yet done.
It is interesting, and absolutely essential, that the various rules of science
be mutually consistent. Since the observations are all the same observations,
one rule cannot give one prediction and another rule another prediction. Thus
, science is not a specialist business; it is completely universal. I talked a
bout the atoms in physiology; I talked about the atoms in astronomy, electrici
ty, chemistry. They are universal; they must be mutually consistent. You canno
t just start off with a new thing that cannot be made of atoms.
It is interesting that reason works in guessing at the rules, and the rules, a
t least in physics, become reduced. I gave an example of the beautiful reducti
on of the rules in chemistry and electricity into one rule, but there are many
more examples.
The rules that describe nature seem to be mathematical. This is not a result o
f the fact that observation is the judge, and it is not a characteristic neces
sity of science that it be mathematical. It just turns out that you can state
mathematical laws, in physics at least, which work to make powerful prediction
s. Why nature is mathematical is, again, a mystery.
I come now to an important point. The old laws may be wrong. How can an observ
ation be incorrect? If it has been carefully checked, how can it be wrong? Why
are physicists always having to change the laws? The answer is, first, that t
he laws are not the observations and, second, that experiments are always inac
curate. The laws are guessed laws, extrapolations, not something that the obse
rvations insist upon. They are just good guesses that have gone through the si
eve so far. And it turns out later that the sieve now has smaller holes than t
he sieves that were used before, and this time the law is caught. So the laws
are guessed; they are extrapolations into the unknown. You do not know what is
going to happen, so you take a guess.
For example, it was believed-it was discovered- that motion does not affect th
e weight of a thing-that if you spin a top and weigh it, and then weigh it whe
n it has stopped, it weighs the same. That is the result of an observation. Bu
t you cannot weigh something to the infinitesimal number of decimal places, pa
rts in a billion. But we now understand that a spinning top weighs more than a
top which is not spinning by a few parts in less than a billion. If the top s
pins fast enough so that the speed of the edges approaches 186,000 miles a sec
ond, the weight increase is appreciable-but not until then. The first experime
nts were performed with tops that spun at speeds much lower than 186,000 miles
a second. It seemed then that the mass of the top spinning and not spinning w
as exactly the same, and someone made a guess that the mass never changes.
How foolish! What a fool! It is only a guessed law, an extrapolation. Why did
he do something so unscientific? There was nothing unscientific about it; it w
as only uncertain. It would have been unscientific not to guess. It has to be
done because the extrapolations are the only things that have any real value.
It is only the principle of what you think will happen in a case you have not
tried that is worth knowing about. Knowledge is of no real value if all you ca
n tell me is what happened yesterday. It is necessary to tell what will happen
tomorrow if you do something-not only necessary, but fun. Only you must be wi
lling to stick your neck out.
Every scientific law, every scientific principle, every statement of the resul
ts of an observation is some kind of a summary which leaves out details, becau
se nothing can be stated precisely. The man simply forgot-he should have state
d the law "The mass doesn't change much when the speed isn't too high." The ga
me is to make a specific rule and then see if it will go through the sieve. So
the specific guess was that the mass never changes at all. Exciting possibili
ty! It does no harm that it turned out not to be the case. It was only uncerta
in, and there is no harm in being uncertain. It is better to say something and
not be sure than not to say anything at all.
It is necessary and true that all of the things we say in science, all of the
conclusions, are uncertain, because they are only conclusions. They are guesse
s as to what is going to happen, and you cannot know what will happen, because
you have not made the most complete experiments.
It is curious that the effect on the mass of a spinning top is so small you ma
y say, "Oh, it doesn't make any difference." But to get a law that is right, o
r at least one that keeps going through the successive sieves, that goes on fo
r many more observations, requires a tremendous intelligence and imagination a
nd a complete revamping of our philosophy, our understanding of space and time
. I am referring to the relativity theory. It turns out that the tiny effects
that turn up always require the most revolutionary modifications of ideas.
Scientists, therefore, are used to dealing with doubt and uncertainty. All sci
entific knowledge is uncertain. This experience with doubt and uncertainty is
important. I believe that it is of very great value, and one that extends beyo
nd the sciences. I believe that to solve any problem that has never been solve
d before, you have to leave the door to the unknown ajar. You have to permit t
he possibility that you do not have it exactly right. Otherwise, if you have m
ade up your mind already, you might not solve it.
When the scientist tells you he does not know the answer, he is an ignorant ma
n. When he tells you he has a hunch about how it is going to work, he is uncer
tain about it. When he is pretty sure of how it is going to work, and he tells
you, "This is the way it's going to work, I'll bet," he still is in some doub
t. And it is of paramount importance, in order to make progress, that we recog
nize this ignorance and this doubt. Because we have the doubt, we then propose
looking in new directions for new ideas. The rate of the development of scien
ce is not the rate at which you make observations alone but, much more importa
nt, the rate at which you create new things to test.
If we were not able or did not desire to look in any new direction, if we did
not have a doubt or recognize ignorance, we would not get any new ideas. There
would be nothing worth checking, because we would know what is true. So what
we call scientific knowledge today is a body of statements of varying degrees
of certainty. Some of them are most unsure; some of them are nearly sure; but
none is absolutely certain. Scientists are used to this. We know that it is co
nsistent to be able to live and not know. Some people say, "How can you live w
ithout knowing?" I do not know what they mean. I always live without knowing.
That is easy. How you get to know is what I want to know.
This freedom to doubt is an important matter in the sciences and, I believe, i
n other fields. It was born of a struggle. It was a struggle to be permitted t
o doubt, to be unsure. And I do not want us to forget the importance of the st
ruggle and, by default, to let the thing fall away. I feel a responsibility as
a scientist who knows the great value of a satisfactory philosophy of ignoran
ce, and the progress made possible by such a philosophy, progress which is the
fruit of freedom of thought. I feel a responsibility to proclaim the value of
this freedom and to teach that doubt is not to be feared, but that it is to b
e welcomed as the possibility of a new potential for human beings. If you know
that you are not sure, you have a chance to improve the situation. I want to
demand this freedom for future generations.
Doubt is clearly a value in the sciences. Whether it is in other fields is an
open question and an uncertain matter. I expect in the next lectures to discus
s that very point and to try to demonstrate that it is important to doubt and
that doubt is not a fearful thing, but a thing of very great value.
II
The Uncertainty of Values
WE ARE ALL SAD when we think of the wondrous potentialities that human beings
seem to have and when we contrast these potentialities with the small accompli
shments that we have. Again and again people have thought that we could do muc
h better. People in the past had, in the nightmare of their times, dreams for
the future, and we of their future have, although many of those dreams have be
en surpassed, to a large extent the same dreams. The hopes for the future toda
y are in a great measure the same as they were in the past. At some time peopl
e thought that the potential that people had was not developed because everyon
e was ignorant and that education was the solution to the problem, that if all
people were educated, we could perhaps all be Voltaires. But it turns out tha
t falsehood and evil can be taught as easily as good. Education is a great pow
er, but it can work either way. I have heard it said that the communication be
tween nations should lead to an understanding and thus a solution to the probl
em of developing the potentialities of man. But the means of communication can
be channeled and choked. What is communicated can be lies as well as truth, p
ropaganda as well as real and valuable information. Communication is a strong
force, also, but either for good or evil. The applied sciences, for a while, w
ere thought to free men of material difficulties at least, and there is some g
ood in the record, especially, for example, in medicine. On the other hand, sc
ientists are working now in secret laboratories to develop the diseases that t
hey were so careful to control.
Everybody dislikes war. Today our dream is that peace will be the solution. Wi
thout the expense of armaments, we can do whatever we want. And peace is a gre
at force for good or for evil. How will it be for evil? I do not know. We will
see, if we ever get peace. We have, clearly, peace as a great force, as well
as material power, communication, education, honesty, and the ideals of many d
reamers. We have more forces of this kind to control today than did the ancien
ts. And maybe we are doing it a little bit better than most of them could do.
But what we ought to be able to do seems gigantic compared to our confused acc
omplishments. Why is this? Why can't we conquer ourselves? Because we find tha
t even the greatest forces and abilities don't seem to carry with them any cle
ar instructions on how to use them. As an example, the great accumulation of u
nderstanding as to how the physical world behaves only convinces one that this
behavior has a kind of meaninglessness about it. The sciences do not directly
teach good and bad.
Throughout all the ages, men have been trying to fathom the meaning of life. T
hey realize that if some direction or some meaning could be given to the whole
thing, to our actions, then great human forces would be unleashed. So, very m
any answers have been given to the question of the meaning of it all. But they
have all been of different sorts. And the proponents of one idea have looked
with horror at the actions of the believers of another-horror because from a d
isagreeing point of view all the great potentialities of the race were being c
hanneled into a false and confining blind alley. In fact, it is from the histo
ry of the enormous monstrosities that have been created by false belief that p
hilosophers have come to realize the fantastic potentialities and wondrous cap
acities of human beings.
The dream is to find the open channel. What, then, is the meaning of it all? W
hat can we say today to dispel the mystery of existence? If we take everything
into account, not only what the ancients knew, but also all those things that
we have found out up to today that they didn't know, then I think that we mus
t frankly admit that we do not know. But I think that in admitting this we hav
e probably found the open channel.
Admitting that we do not know and maintaining perpetually the attitude that we
do not know the direction necessarily to go permit a possibility of alteratio
n, of thinking, of new contributions and new discoveries for the problem of de
veloping a way to do what we want ultimately, even when we do not know what we
want.
Looking back at the worst times, it always seems that they were times in which
there were people who believed with absolute faith and absolute dogmatism in
something. And they were so serious in this matter that they insisted that the
rest of the world agree with them. And then they would do things that were di
rectly inconsistent with their own beliefs in order to maintain that what they
said was true.
So I have developed in a previous talk, and I want to maintain here, that it i
s in the admission of ignorance and the admission of uncertainty that there is
a hope for the continuous motion of human beings in some direction that doesn
't get confined, permanently blocked, as it has so many times before in variou
s periods in the history of man. I say that we do not know what is the meaning
of life and what are the right moral values, that we have no way to choose th
em and so on. No discussion can be made of moral values, of the meaning of lif
e and so on, without coming to the great source of systems of morality and des
criptions of meaning, which is in the field of religion.
And so I don't feel that I could give three lectures on the subject of the imp
act of scientific ideas on other ideas without frankly and completely discussi
ng the relation of science and religion. I don't know why I should even have t
o start to make an excuse for doing this, so I won't continue to try to make s
uch an excuse. But I would like to begin a discussion of the question of a con
flict, if any, between science and religion. I described more or less what I m
eant by science, and I have to tell you what I mean by religion, which is extr
emely difficult, because different people mean different things. But in the di
scussion that I want to talk about here I mean the everyday, ordinary, church-
going kind of religion, not the elegant theology that belongs to it, but the w
ay ordinary people believe, in a more or less conventional way, about their re
ligious beliefs.
I do believe that there is a conflict between science and religion, religion m
ore or less defined that way. And in order to bring the question to a position
that is easy to discuss, by making the thing very definite, instead of trying
to make a very difficult theological study, I would present a problem which I
see happens from time to time.
A young man of a religious family goes to the university, say, and studies sci
ence. As a consequence of his study of science, he begins, naturally, to doubt
as it is necessary in his studies. So first he begins to doubt, and then he b
egins to disbelieve, perhaps, in his father's God. By "God" I mean the kind of
personal God, to which one prays, who has something to do with creation, as o
ne prays for moral values, perhaps. This phenomenon happens often. It is not a
n isolated or an imaginary case. In fact, I believe, although I have no direct
statistics, that more than half of the scientists do not believe in their fat
her's God, or in God in a conventional sense. Most scientists do not believe i
n it. Why? What happens? By answering this question I think that we will point
up most clearly the problems of the relation of religion and science.
Well, why is it? There are three possibilities. The first is that the young ma
n is taught by the scientists, and I have already pointed out, they are atheis
ts, and so their evil is spread from the teacher to the student, perpetually .
. . Thank you for the laughter. If you take this point of view, I believe it
shows that you know less of science than I know of religion.
The second possibility is to suggest that because a little knowledge is danger
ous, that the young man just learning a little science thinks he knows it all,
and to suggest that when he becomes a little more mature he will understand b
etter all these things. But I don't think so. I think that there are many matu
re scientists, or men who consider themselves mature-and if you didn't know ab
out their religious beliefs ahead of time you would decide that they are matur
e-who do not believe in God. As a matter of fact, I think that the answer is t
he exact reverse. It isn't that he knows it all, but he suddenly realizes that
he doesn't know it all.
The third possibility of explanation of the phenomenon is that the young man p
erhaps doesn't understand science correctly, that science cannot disprove God,
and that a belief in science and religion is consistent. I agree that science
cannot disprove the existence of God. I absolutely agree. I also agree that a
belief in science and religion is consistent. I know many scientists who beli
eve in God. It is not my purpose to disprove anything. There are very many sci
entists who do believe in God, in a conventional way too, perhaps, I do not kn
ow exactly how they believe in God. But their belief in God and their action i
n science is thoroughly consistent. It is consistent, but it is difficult. And
what I would like to discuss here is why it is hard to attain this consistenc
y and perhaps whether it is worthwhile to attempt to attain the consistency
There are two sources of difficulty that the young man we are imagining would
have, I think, when he studies science. The first is that he learns to doubt,
that it is necessary to doubt, that it is valuable to doubt. So, he begins to
question everything. The question that might have been before, "Is there a God
or isn't there a God" changes to the question "How sure am I that there is a
God? " He now has a new and subtle problem that is different than it was befor
e. He has to determine how sure he is, where on the scale between absolute cer
tainty and absolute certainty on the other side he can put his belief, because
he knows that he has to have his knowledge in an unsure condition and he cann
ot be absolutely certain anymore. He has to make up his mind. Is it 50-50 or i
s it 97 percent? This sounds like a very small difference, but it is an extrem
ely important and subtle difference. Of course it is true that the man does no
t usually start by doubting directly the existence of God. He usually starts b
y doubting some other details of the belief, such as the belief in an afterlif
e, or some of the details of Christ's life, or something like this. But in ord
er to make this question as sharp as possible, to be frank with it, I will sim
plify it and will come right directly to the question of this problem about wh
ether there is a God or not.
The result of this self-study or thinking, or whatever it is, often ends with
a conclusion that is very close to certainty that there is a God. And it often
ends, on the other hand, with the claim that it is almost certainly wrong to
believe that there is a God.
Now the second difficulty that the student has when he studies science, and wh
ich is, in a measure, a kind of conflict between science and religion, because
it is a human difficulty that happens when you are educated two ways. Althoug
h we may argue theologically and on a high-class philosophical level that ther
e is no conflict, it is still true that the young man who comes from a religio
us family gets into some argument with himself and his friends when he studies
science, so there is some kind of a conflict.
Well, the second origin of a type of conflict is associated with the facts, or
, more carefully, the partial facts that he learns in the science. For example
, he learns about the size of the universe. The size of the universe is very i
mpressive, with us on a tiny particle that whirls around the sun. That's one s
un among a hundred thousand million suns in this galaxy, itself among a billio
n galaxies. And again, he learns about the close biological relationship of ma
n to the animals and of one form of life to another and that man is a latecome
r in a long and vast, evolving drama. Can the rest be just a scaffolding for H
is creation? And yet again there are the atoms, of which all appears to be con
structed following immutable laws. Nothing can escape it. The stars are made o
f the same stuff, the animals are made of the same stuff-but in some such comp
lexity as to mysteriously appear alive.
It is a great adventure to contemplate the universe, beyond man, to contemplat
e what it would be like without man, as it was in a great part of its long his
tory and as it is in a great majority of places. When this objective view is f
inally attained, and the mystery and majesty of matter are fully appreciated,
to then turn the objective eye back on man viewed as matter, to view life as p
art of this universal mystery of greatest depth, is to sense an experience whi
ch is very rare, and very exciting. It usually ends in laughter and a delight
in the futility of trying to understand what this atom in the universe is, thi
s thing-atoms with curiosity-that looks at itself and wonders why it wonders.
Well, these scientific views end in awe and mystery, lost at the edge in uncer
tainty, but they appear to be so deep and so impressive that the theory that i
t is all arranged as a stage for God to watch man's struggle for good and evil
seems inadequate.
Some will tell me that I have just described a religious experience. Very well
, you may call it what you will. Then, in that language I would say that the y
oung man's religious experience is of such a kind that he finds the religion o
f his church inadequate to describe, to encompass that kind of experience. The
God of the church isn't big enough.
Perhaps. Everyone has different opinions. Suppose, however, our student does c
ome to the view that individual prayer is not heard. I am not trying to dispro
ve the existence of God. I am only trying to give you some understanding of th
e origin of the difficulties that people have who are educated from two differ
ent points of view. It is not possible to disprove the existence of God, as fa
r as I know. But is true that it is difficult to take two different points of
view that come from different directions. So let us suppose that this particul
ar student is particularly difficult and does come to the conclusion that indi
vidual prayer is not heard. Then what happens? Then the doubting machinery, hi
s doubts, are turned on ethical problems. Because, as he was educated, his rel
igious views had it that the ethical and moral values were the word of God. No
w if God maybe isn't there, maybe the ethical and moral values are wrong. And
what is very inter- esting is that they have survived almost intact. There may
have been a period when a few of the moral views and the ethical positions of
his religion seemed wrong, he had to think about them, and many of them he re
turned to.
But my atheistic scientific colleagues, which does not include all scientists-
I cannot tell by their behavior, because of course I am on the same side, that
they are particularly different from the religious ones, and it seems that th
eir moral feelings and their understandings of other people and their humanity
and so on apply to the believers as well as the disbelievers. It seems to me
that there is a kind of independence between the ethical and moral views and t
he theory of the machinery of the universe.
Science makes, indeed, an impact on many ideas associated with religion, but I
do not believe it affects, in any very strong way, the moral conduct and ethi
cal views. Religion has many aspects. It answers all kinds of questions. I wou
ld, however, like to emphasize three aspects.
The first is that it tells what things are and where they came from and what m
an is and what God is and what properties God has and so on. I'd like, for the
purposes of this discussion, to call those the metaphysical aspects of religi
on.
And then it says how to behave. I don't mean in the terms of ceremonies or rit
uals or things like that, but I mean how to behave in general, in a moral way.
This we could call the ethical aspect of religion.
And finally, people are weak. It takes more than the right conscience to produ
ce right behavior. And even though you may feel you know what you are supposed
to do, you all know that you don't do things the way you would like yourself
to do them. And one of the powerful aspects of religion is its inspirational a
spects. Religion gives inspiration to act well. Not only that, it gives inspir
ation to the arts and to many other activities of human beings.
Now these three aspects of religion are very closely interconnected, in the re
ligion's view. First of all, it usually goes something like this: that the mor
al values are the word of God. Being the word of God connects the ethical and
metaphysical aspects of religion. And finally, that also inspires the inspirat
ion, because if you are working for God and obeying God's will, you are in som
e way connected to the universe, your actions have a meaning in the greater wo
rld, and that is an inspiring aspect. So these three aspects are very well int
egrated and interconnected. The difficulty is that science occasionally confli
cts with the first two categories, that is with the ethical and with the metap
hysical aspects of religion.
There was a big struggle when it was discovered that the earth rotates on its
axis and goes around the sun. It was not supposed to be the case according to
the religion of the time. There was a terrible argument and the outcome was, i
n that case, that religion retreated from the position that the earth stood at
the center of the universe. But at the end of the retreat there was no change
in the moral viewpoint of the religion. There was another tremendous argument
when it was found likely that man descended from the animals. Most religions
have retreated once again from the metaphysical position that it wasn't true.
The result is no particular change in the moral view. You see that the earth m
oves around the sun, yes, then does that tell us whether it is or is not good
to turn the other cheek? It is this conflict associated with these metaphysica
l aspects that is doubly difficult because the facts conflict. Not only the fa
cts, but the spirits conflict. Not only are there difficulties about whether t
he sun does or doesn't rotate around the earth, but the spirit or attitude tow
ard the facts is also different in religion from what it is in science. The un
certainty that is necessary in order to appreciate nature is not easily correl
ated with the feeling of certainty in faith, which is usually associated with
deep religious belief. I do not believe that the scientist can have that same
certainty of faith that very deeply religious people have. Perhaps they can. I
don't know. I think that it is difficult. But anyhow it seems that the metaph
ysical aspects of religion have nothing to do with the ethical values, that th
e moral values seem somehow to be outside of the scientific realm. All these c
onflicts don't seem to affect the ethical value.
I just said that ethical values lie outside the scientific realm. I have to de
fend that, because many people think the other way. They think that scientific
ally we should get some conclusions about moral values.
I have several reasons for that. You see, if you don't have a good reason, you
have to have several reasons, so I have four reasons to think that moral valu
es lie outside the scientific realm. First, in the past there were conflicts.
The metaphysical positions have changed, and there have been practically no ef
fects on the ethical views. So there must be a hint that there is an independe
nce.
Second, I already pointed out that, I think at least, there are good men who p
ractice Christian ethics and don't believe in the divinity of Christ. Incident
ally, I forgot to say earlier that I take a provincial view of religion. I kno
w that there are many people here who have religions that are not Western reli
gions. But in a subject as broad as this it is better to take a special exampl
e, and you have to just translate to see how it looks if you are an Arab or a
Buddhist, or whatever.
The third thing is that, as far as I know in the gathering of scientific evide
nce, there doesn't seem to be anywhere, anything that says whether the Golden
Rule is a good one or not. I don't have any evidence of it on the basis of sci
entific study.
And finally I would like to make a little philosophical argument-this I'm not
very good at, but I would like to make a little philosophical argument to expl
ain why theoretically I think that science and moral questions are independent
. The common human problem, the big question, always is "Should I do this?" It
is a question of action. "What should I do? Should I do this?" And how can we
answer such a question? We can divide it into two parts. We can say, "If I do
this what will happen?" That doesn't tell me whether I should do this. We sti
ll have another part, which is "Well, do I want that to happen?" In other word
s, the first question-"If I do this what will happen?"-is at least susceptible
to scientific investigation; in fact, it is a typical scientific question. It
doesn't mean we know what will happen. Far from it. We never know what is goi
ng to happen. The science is very rudimentary. But, at least it is in the real
m of science we have a method to deal with it. The method is "Try it and see"-
we talked about that-and accumulate the information and so on. And so the ques
tion "If I do it what will happen?" is a typically scientific question. But th
e question "Do I want this to happen"-in the ultimate moment-is not. Well, you
say, if I do this, I see that everybody is killed, and, of course, I don't wa
nt that. Well, how do you know you don't want people killed? You see, at the e
nd you must have some ultimate judgment.
You could take a different example. You could say, for instance, "If I follow
this economic policy, I see there is going to be a depression, and, of course,
I don't want a depression." Wait. You see, only knowing that it is a depressi
on doesn't tell you that you do not want it. You have then to judge whether th
e feelings of power you would get from this, whether the importance of the cou
ntry moving in this direction is better than the cost to the people who are su
ffering. Or maybe there would be some sufferers and not others. And so there m
ust at the end be some ultimate judgment somewhere along the line as to what i
s valuable, whether people are valuable, whether life is valuable. Deep in the
end-you may follow the argument of what will happen further and further along
-but ultimately you have to decide "Yeah, I want that" or "No, I don't." And t
he judgment there is of a different nature. I do not see how by knowing what w
ill happen alone it is possible to know if ultimately you want the last of the
things. I believe, therefore, that it is impossible to decide moral questions
by the scientific technique, and that the two things are independent.
Now the inspirational aspect, the third aspect of religion, is what I would li
ke to turn to, and that brings me to a central question that I would like to a
sk you all, because I have no idea of the answer. The source of inspiration to
day, the source of strength and comfort in any religion, is closely knit with
the metaphysical aspects. That is, the inspiration comes from working for God,
from obeying His will, and so on. Now an emotional tie expressed in this mann
er, the strong feeling that you are doing right, is weakened when the slightes
t amount of doubt is expressed as to the existence of God. So when a belief in
God is uncertain, this particular method of obtaining inspiration fails. I do
n't know the answer to this problem, the problem of maintaining the real value
of religion as a source of strength and of courage to most men while at the s
ame time not requiring an absolute faith in the metaphysical system. You may t
hink that it might be possible to invent a metaphysical system for religion wh
ich will state things in such a way that science will never find itself in dis
agreement. But I do not think that it is possible to take an adventurous and e
ver-expanding science that is going into an unknown, and to tell the answer to
questions ahead of time and not expect that sooner or later, no matter what y
ou do, you will find that some answers of this kind are wrong. So I do not thi
nk that it is possible to not get into a conflict if you require an absolute f
aith in metaphysical aspects, and at the same time I don't understand how to m
aintain the real value of religion for inspiration if we have some doubt as to
that. That's a serious problem.
Western civilization, it seems to me, stands by two great heritages. One is th
e scientific spirit of adventure- the adventure into the unknown, an unknown t
hat must be recognized as unknown in order to be explored, the demand that the
unanswerable mysteries of the universe remain unanswered, the attitude that a
ll is uncertain. To summarize it: humility of the intellect.
The other great heritage is Christian ethics-the basis of action on love, the
brotherhood of all men, the value of the individual, the humility of the spiri
t. These two heritages are logically, thoroughly consistent. But logic is not
all. One needs one's heart to follow an idea. If people are going back to reli
gion, what are they going back to? Is the modern church a place to give comfor
t to a man who doubts God? More, one who disbelieves in God? Is the modern chu
rch the place to give comfort and encouragement to the value of such doubts? S
o far, haven't we drawn strength and comfort to maintain the one or the other
of these consistent heritages in a way which attacks the values of the other?
Is this unavoidable? How can we draw inspiration to support these two pillars
of Western civilization so that they may stand together in full vigor, mutuall
y unafraid? That, I don't know. But that, I think, is the best I can do on the
relationship of science and religion, the religion which has been in the past
and still is, therefore, a source of moral code as well as inspiration to fol
low that code.
Today we find, as always, a conflict between nations, in particular a conflict
between the two great sides, Russia and the United States. I insist that we a
re uncertain of our moral views. Different people have different ideas of what
is right and wrong. If we are uncertain of our ideas of what is right and wro
ng, how can we choose in this conflict? Where is the conflict? With economic c
apitalism versus government control of economics, is it absolutely clear and p
erfectly important which side is right? We must remain uncertain. We may be pr
etty sure that capitalism is better than government control, but we have our o
wn government controls. We have 52 percent; that is the corporate income tax c
ontrol.
There are arguments between religion on the one hand, usually meant to represe
nt our country, and atheism on the other hand, supposed to represent the Russi
ans. Two points of view-they are only two points of view-no way to decide. The
re is a problem of human values, or the value of the state, the question of ho
w to deal with crimes against the state-different points of view-we can only b
e uncertain. Do we have a real conflict? There is perhaps some progress of dic
tatorial government toward the confusion of democracy and the confusion of dem
ocracy toward somewhat more dictatorial government. Uncertainty apparently mea
ns no conflict. How nice. But I don't believe it. I think there is a definite
conflict. I think that Russia represents danger in saying that the solution to
human problems is known, that all effort should be for the state, for that me
ans there is no novelty. The human machine is not allowed to develop its poten
tialities, its surprises, its varieties, its new solutions for difficult probl
ems, its new points of view.
The government of the United States was developed under the idea that nobody k
new how to make a government, or how to govern. The result is to invent a syst
em to govern when you don't know how. And the way to arrange it is to permit a
system, like we have, wherein new ideas can be developed and tried out and th
rown away. The writers of the Constitution knew of the value of doubt. In the
age that they lived, for instance, science had already developed far enough to
show the possibilities and potentialities that are the result of having uncer
tainty, the value of having the openness of possibility. The fact that you are
not sure means that it is possible that there is another way some day. That o
penness of possibility is an opportunity. Doubt and discussion are essential t
o progress. The United States government, in that respect, is new, it's modern
, and it is scientific. It is all messed up, too. Senators sell their votes fo
r a dam in their state and discussions get all excited and lobbying replaces t
he minority's chance to represent itself, and so forth. The government of the
United States is not very good, but it, with the possible exception the govern
ment of England, is the greatest government on the earth today, is the most sa
tisfactory, the most modern, but not very good.
Russia is a backward country. Oh, it is technologically advanced. I described
the difference between what I like to call the science and technology. It does
not apparently seem, unfortunately, that engineering and technological develo
pment are not consistent with suppressed new opinion. It appears, at least in
the days of Hitler, where no new science was developed, nevertheless rockets w
ere made, and rockets also can be made in Russia. I am sorry to hear that, but
it is true that technological development, the applications of science, can g
o on without the freedom. Russia is backward because it has not learned that t
here is a limit to government power. The great discovery of the Anglo-Saxons i
s-they are not the only people who thought of it, but, to take the later histo
ry of the long struggle of the idea-that there can be a limit to government po
wer. There is no free criticism of ideas in Russia. You say, "Yes, they discus
s anti-Stalinism." Only in a definite form. Only to a definite extent. We shou
ld take advantage of this. Why don't we discuss anti-Stalinism too? Why don't
we point out all the troubles we had with that gentleman? Why don't we point o
ut the dangers that there are in a government that can have such a thing grow
inside itself? Why don't we point out the analogies between the Stalinism that
is being criticized inside of Russia and the behavior that is going on at the
very same moment inside Russia? Well, all right, all right. . .
Now, I get excited, see. . . . It's only emotion. I shouldn't do that, because
we should do this more scientifically. I won't convince you very well unless
I make believe that it is a completely rational, unprejudiced scientific argum
ent.
I only have a little experience in those countries. I visited Poland, and I fo
und something interesting. The Polish people, of course, are freedom-loving pe
ople, and they are under the influence of the Russians. They can't publish wha
t they want, but at the time when I was there, which was a year ago, they coul
d say what they wanted, strangely enough, but not publish anything. And so we
would have very lively discussions in public places on all sides of various qu
estions. The most striking thing to remember about Poland, by the way, is that
they have had an experience with Germany which is so deep and so frightening
and so horrible that they cannot possibly forget it. And, therefore, all of th
eir attitudes in foreign affairs have to do with a fear of the resurgence of G
ermany. And I thought while I was there of the terrible crime that would be th
e result of a policy on the part of the free countries which would permit once
again the development of that kind of a thing in that country. Therefore, the
y accept Russia. Therefore, they explained to me, you see, the Russians defini
tely are holding down the East Germans. There is no way that the East Germans
are going to have any Nazis. And there is no question that the Russians can co
ntrol them. And so at least there is that buffer. And the thing that struck me
as odd was that they didn't realize that one country can protect another coun
try, and guarantee it, without dominating it completely, without living there.
The other thing they told me was very often, different individuals would call
me aside and say that we would be surprised to find that, if Poland did get fr
ee of Russia and had their own government and were free, they would go along m
ore or less the way they are going. I said, "What do you mean? I am surprised.
You mean you wouldn't have freedom of speech." "Oh, no, we would have all the
freedoms. We would love the freedoms, but we would have nationalized industri
es and so on. We believe in the socialistic ideas." I was surprised because I
don't understand the problem that way. I don't think of the problem as between
socialism and capitalism but rather between suppression of ideas and free ide
as. If it is that free ideas and socialism are better than communism, it will
work its way through. And it will be better for everybody. And if capitalism i
s better than socialism, it will work its way through. We have got 52 percent.
. .
well . . .
The fact that Russia is not free is clear to everyone, and the consequences in
the sciences are quite obvious. One of the best examples is Lysenko, who has
a theory of genetics, which is that acquired characteristics can be passed on
to the offspring. This is probably true. The great majority, however, of genet
ic influences are undoubtedly of a different kind, and they are carried by the
germ plasm. There are undoubtedly a few examples, a few small examples alread
y known, in which some kind of a characteristic is carried to the next generat
ion by direct, what we like to call cytoplasmic, inheritance. But the main poi
nt is that the major part of genetic behavior is in a different manner than Ly
senko thinks. So he has spoiled Russia. The great Mendel, who discovered the l
aws of genetics, and the beginnings of the science, is dead. Only in the Weste
rn countries can it be continued, because they are not free in Russia to analy
ze these things. They have to discuss and argue against us all the time. And t
he result is interesting. Not only in this case has it stopped the science of
biology, which, by the way, is the most active, most exciting, and most rapidl
y developing science today in the West. In Russia it is doing nothing. At the
same time you would think that from an economic standpoint such a thing is imp
ossible. But nevertheless by having the incorrect theories of inheritance and
genetics, the biology of the agriculture of Russia is behind. They don't devel
op the hybrid corn right. They don't know how to develop better brands of pota
toes. They used to know. They had the greatest potato tuber collections and so
on in Russia before Lysenko than anywhere in the world. But today they have n
othing of this kind. They only argue with the West.
In physics there was a time when there was trouble. In recent times there has
been a great freedom for the physicist. Not a hundred percent freedom; there a
re different schools of thought which argue with each other. They were all in
a meeting in Poland. And the Polish Intourist, the analogue of Intourist in Po
land, which is call Polorbis, arranged a trip. And of course, there was only a
limited number of rooms, and they made the mistake of putting Russians in the
same room. They came down and they screamed, "For seventeen years I have neve
r talked to that man, and I will not be in the same room with him."
There are two schools of physics. And there are the good guys and the bad guys
, and it's perfectly obvious, and it's very interesting. And there are great p
hysicists in Russia, but physics is developing much more rapidly in the West,
and although it looked for a while like something good would happen there, it
hasn't.
Now this doesn't mean that technology is not developing or that they are in so
me way backward that way, but I'm trying to show that in a country of this kin
d the development of ideas is doomed.
You have read about the recent phenomenon in modern art. When I was in Poland
there was modern art hung in little corners in back streets. And there was the
beginning of modern art in Russia. I don't know what the value of modern art
is. I mean either way. But Mr. Khrushchev visited such a place, and Mr. Khrush
chev decided that it looked as if this painting were painted by the tail of a
jackass. My comment is, he should know.
To make the thing still more real I give you the example of a Mr. Nakhrosov wh
o traveled in the United States and in Italy and went home and wrote what he s
aw. He was castigated for, I quote the castigator, "A 50-50 approach, for bour
geois objectivism." Is this a scientific country? Where did we ever get the id
ea that the Russians were, in some sense, scientific? Because in the early day
s of their revolution they had different ideas than they have now? But it is n
ot scientific to not adopt a 50-50 approach-that is, to not understand what th
ere is in the world in order to modify things; that is, to be blind in order t
o maintain ignorance.
I cannot help going on with this criticism of Mr. Nakhrosov and to tell you mo
re about it. It was made by a man whose name is Padgovney, who is the first se
cretary of the Ukranian Communist Party. He said, "You told us here... (He was
at a meeting at which the other man had just spoken, but nobody knows what he
said, because it wasn't published. But the criticism was published.) You told
us here you would only write the truth, the great truth, the real truth, for
which you fought in the trenches of Stalingrad. That would be fine. We all adv
ise you to write that way. (I hope he does.) Your speech, and the ideas you co
ntinue to support smack of petty bourgeois anarchy. This the party and people
cannot and will not tolerate. You, Comrade Nakhrosov, had better think this ov
er very seriously." How can the poor man think it over seriously? How can anyo
ne think seriously about being a petty bourgeois anarchist? Can you picture an
old anarchist who is a bourgeois also? And at the same time petty? The whole
thing is absurd. Therefore, I hope that we can all maintain laughter and ridic
ule for the people like Mr. Padgovney, and at the same time try to communicate
in some way to Mr. Nakhrosov that we admire and respect his courage, because
we are here only at the very beginning of time for the human race. There are t
housands of years in the past, and there is an unknown amount of time in the f
uture. There are all kinds of opportunities, and there are all kinds of danger
s. Man has been stopped before by stopping his ideas. Man has been jammed for
long periods of time. We will not tolerate this. I hope for freedom for future
generations-freedom to doubt, to develop, to continue the adventure of findin
g out new ways of doing things, of solving problems.
Why do we grapple with problems? We are only in the beginning. We have plenty
of time to solve the problems. The only way that we will make a mistake is tha
t in the impetuous youth of humanity we will decide we know the answer. This i
s it. No one else can think of anything else. And we will jam. We will confine
man to the limited imagination of today's human beings.
We are not so smart. We are dumb. We are ignorant. We must maintain an open ch
annel. I believe in limited government. I believe that government should be li
mited in many ways, and what I am going to emphasize is only an intellectual t
hing. I don't want to talk about everything at the same time. Let's take a sma
ll piece, an intellectual thing.
No government has the right to decide on the truth of scientific principles, n
or to prescribe in any way the character of the questions investigated. Neithe
r may a government determine the aesthetic value of artistic creations, nor li
mit the forms of literary or artistic expression. Nor should it pronounce on t
he validity of economic, historic, religious, or philosophical doctrines. Inst
ead it has a duty to its citizens to maintain the freedom, to let those citize
ns contribute to the further adventure and the development of the human race.
Thank you.
Ill
This Unscientific Age
I WAS HAPPY, WHEN I got the invitation to give the John Danz Lectures, to hear
that there would be three lectures, as I had thought about these ideas at gre
at length and wanted an opportunity not to express myself in only one lecture,
but to develop the ideas slowly and carefully in three lectures. I found out
that I developed them slowly and carefully, completely, in two.
I have completely run out of organized ideas, but I have a large number of unc
omfortable feelings about the world which I haven't been able to put into some
obvious, logical, and sensible form. So, since I already contracted to give t
hree lectures, the only thing I can do is to give this potpourri of uncomforta
ble feelings without having them very well organized.
Perhaps someday, when I find a real deep reason behind them all, I will be abl
e to give them in one sensible lecture instead of this thing. Also, in case yo
u are beginning to believe that some of the things I said before are true beca
use I am a scientist and according to the brochure that you get I won some awa
rds and so forth, instead of your looking at the ideas themselves and judging
them directly-in other words, you see, you have some feeling toward authority-
I will get rid of that tonight. I dedicate this lecture to showing what ridicu
lous conclusions and rare statements such a man as myself can make. I wish, th
erefore, to destroy any image of authority that has previously been generated.
You see, a Saturday night is a night for entertainment, and that is... I think
I have got the right spirit now and we can go on. It is always a good to enti
tle a lecture in a way that nobody can believe. It is either peculiar or it is
just the opposite of what you would expect. And that is the reason, of course
, for calling it "This Unscientific Age." Of course if you mean by scientific
the applications of technology, there is no doubt that this is a scientific ag
e. There is no doubt at all that today we have all kinds of scientific applica
tions which are causing us all kinds of trouble as well as giving us all kinds
of advantages. And so in that sense it certainly is a scientific age. If you
mean by a scientific age an age in which science is developing rapidly and adv
ancing fully as fast as it can, then this is definitely a scientific age.
The speed at which science has been developing for the last two hundred years
has been ever increasing, and we reach a culmination of speed now. We are in p
articular in the biological sciences, on the threshold of the most remarkable
discoveries. What they are going to be I am unable to tell you. Naturally, tha
t is the excitement of it. And the excitement that comes from turning one ston
e over after another and finding underneath new discoveries has been going on
now perpetually for several hundred years, and it is an ever-rising crescendo.
This is, in that sense, definitely a scientific age. It has been called a her
oic age, by a scientist, of course. Nobody else knows about it. Sometime when
history looks back at this age they will see that it was a most dramatic and r
emarkable age, the transformation from not knowing much about the world to kno
wing a great deal more than was known before. But if you mean that this is an
age of science in the sense that in art, in literature, and in people's attitu
des and understandings, and so forth science plays a large part, I don't think
it is a scientific age at all. You see, if you take, the heroic age of the Gr
eeks, say, there were poems about the military heroes. In the religious period
of the Middle Ages, art was related directly to religion, and people's attitu
des toward life were definitely closely knit to the religious viewpoints. It w
as a religious age. This is not a scientific age from that point of view.
Now, that there are unscientific things is not my grief. That's a nice word. I
mean, that is not what I am worrying about, that there are unscientific thing
s. That something is unscientific is not bad; there is nothing the matter with
it. It is just unscientific. And scientific is limited, of course, to those t
hings that we can tell about by trial and error. For example, there is the abs
urdity of the young these days chanting things about purple people eaters and
hound dogs, something that we cannot criticize at all if we belong to the old
flat foot floogie and a floy floy or the music goes down and around. Sons of m
others who sang about "come, Josephine, in my flying machine," which sounds ju
st about as modern as "I'd like to get you on a slow boat to China." So in lif
e, in gaiety, in emotion, in human pleasures and pursuits, and in literature a
nd so on, there is no need to be scientific, there is no reason to be scientif
ic. One must relax and enjoy life. That is not the criticism. That is not the
point.
But if you do stop to think about it for a while, you will find that there are
numerous, mostly trivial things which are unscientific, unnecessarily. For in
stance, there are extra seats in the front here, even though there are people
[standing in the back].
While I was talking to some of the students in one of the classes, one man ask
ed me a question, which was, "Are there any attitudes or experiences that you
have when working in scientific information which you think might be useful in
working with other information?"
(By the way, I will at the end say how much of the world today is sensible, ra
tional, and scientific. It's a great deal. So, I am only taking the bad parts
first. It's more fun. Then we soften it at the end. And I latched onto that as
a nice organizing way to make my discussion of all the things that I think ar
e unscientific in the world.)
I would like, therefore, to discuss some of the little tricks of the trade in
trying to judge an idea. We have the advantage that we can ultimately refer th
e idea to experiment in the sciences, which may not be possible in other field
s. But nevertheless, some of the ways of judging things, some of the experienc
es undoubtedly are useful in other ways. So, I start with a few examples.
The first one has to do with whether a man knows what he is talking about, whe
ther what he says has some basis or not. And my trick that I use is very easy.
If you ask him intelligent questions-that is, penetrating, interested, honest
, frank, direct questions on the subject, and no trick questions-then he quick
ly gets stuck. It is like a child asking naive questions. If you ask naive but
relevant questions, then almost immediately the person doesn't know the answe
r, if he is an honest man. It is important to appreciate that. And I think tha
t I can illustrate one unscientific aspect of the world which would be probabl
y very much better if it were more scientific. It has to do with politics. Sup
pose two politicians are running for president, and one goes through the farm
section and is asked, "What are you going to do about the farm question?" And
he knows right away-bang, bang, bang. Now he goes to the next campaigner who c
omes through. "What are you going to do about the farm problem?" "Well, I don'
t know. I used to be a general, and I don't know anything about farming. But i
t seems to me it must be a very difficult problem, because for twelve, fifteen
, twenty years people have been struggling with it, and people say that they k
now how to solve the farm problem. And it must be a hard problem. So the way t
hat I intend to solve the farm problem is to gather around me a lot of people
who know something about it, to look at all the experience that we have had wi
th this problem before, to take a certain amount of time at it, and then to co
me to some conclusion in a reasonable way about it. Now, I can't tell you ahea
d of time what conclusion, but I can give you some of the principles I'll try
to use-not to make things difficult for individual farmers, if there are any s
pecial problems we will have to have some way to take care of them," etc., etc
., etc.
Now such a man would never get anywhere in this country, I think. Its never be
en tried, anyway. This is in the attitude of mind of the populace, that they h
ave to have an answer and that a man who gives an answer is better than a man
who gives no answer, when the real fact of the matter is, in most cases, it is
the other way around. And the result of this of course is that the politician
must give an answer. And the result of this is that political promises can ne
ver be kept. It is a mechanical fact; it is impossible. The result of that is
that nobody believes campaign promises. And the result of that is a general di
sparaging of politics, a general lack of respect for the people who are trying
to solve problems, and so forth. It's all generated from the very beginning (
maybe-this is a simple analysis). Its all generated, maybe, by the fact that t
he attitude of the populace is to try to find the answer instead of trying to
find a man who has a way of getting at the answer.
Now we try another item that comes in the sciences-I give only one or two illu
strations of each of the general ideas-and that is how to deal with uncertaint
y. There have been a lot of jokes made about ideas of uncertainty. I would lik
e to remind you that you can be pretty sure of things even though you are unce
rtain, that you don't have to be so in-the-middle, in fact not at all in-the-m
iddle. People say to me, "Well, how can you teach your children what is right
and wrong if you don't know?" Because I'm pretty sure of what's right and wron
g. I'm not absolutely sure; some experiences may change my mind. But I know wh
at I would expect to teach them. But, of course, a child won't learn what you
teach him.
I would like to mention a somewhat technical idea, but it's the way, you see,
we have to understand how to handle uncertainty. How does something move from
being almost certainly false to being almost certainly true? How does experien
ce change? How do you handle the changes of your certainty with experience? An
d it's rather complicated, technically, but I'll give a rather simple, idealiz
ed example.
You have, we suppose, two theories about the way something is going to happen,
which I will call "Theory A" and "Theory B." Now it gets complicated. Theory
A and Theory B. Before you make any observations, for some reason or other, th
at is, your past experiences and other observations and intuition and so on, s
uppose that you are very much more certain of Theory A than of Theory B-much m
ore sure. But suppose that the thing that you are going to observe is a test.
According to Theory A, nothing should happen. According to Theory B, it should
turn blue. Well, you make the observation, and it turns sort of a greenish. T
hen you look at Theory A, and you say, "It's very unlikely," and you turn to T
heory B, and you say, "Well, it should have turned sort of blue, but it wasn't
impossible that it should turn sort of greenish color." So the result of this
observation, then, is that Theory A is getting weaker, and Theory B is gettin
g stronger. And if you continue to make more tests, then the odds on Theory B
increase. Incidentally, it is not right to simply repeat the same test over an
d over and over and over, no matter how many times you look and it still looks
greenish, you haven't made up your mind yet. But if you find a whole lot of o
ther things that distinguish Theory A from Theory B that are different, then b
y accumulating a large number of these, the odds on Theory B increase.
Example. I'm in Las Vegas, suppose. And I meet a mind reader, or, let's say, a
man who claims not to be a mind reader, but more technically speaking to have
the ability of telekinesis, which means that he can influence the way things
behave by pure thought. This fellow comes to me, and he says, "I will demonstr
ate this to you. We will stand at the roulette wheel and I will tell you ahead
of time whether it is going to be black or red on every shot."
I believe, say, before I begin, it doesn't make any difference what number you
choose for this. I happen to be prejudiced against mind readers from experien
ce in nature, in physics. I don't see, if I believe that man is made out of at
oms and if I know all of the-most of the-ways atoms interact with each other,
any direct way in which the machinations in the mind can affect the ball. So f
rom other experience and general knowledge, I have a strong prejudice against
mind readers. Million to one.
Now we begin. The mind reader says it's going to be black. It's black. The min
d reader says it's going to be red. It's red. Do I believe in mind readers? No
. It could happen. The mind reader says it's going to be black. It's black. Th
e mind reader says it's going to be red. It's red. Sweat. I'm about to learn s
omething. This continues, let us suppose, for ten times. Now it's possible by
chance that that happened ten times, but the odds are a thousand to one agains
t it. Therefore, I now have to conclude that the odds that a mind reader is re
ally doing it are a thousand to one that he's not a mind reader still, but it
was a million to one before. But if I get ten more, you see, he'll convince me
. Not quite. One must always allow for alternative theories. There is another
theory that I should have mentioned before. As we went up to the roulette tabl
e, I must have thought in my mind of the possibility that there is collusion b
etween the so-called mind reader and the people at the table. That's possible.
Although this fellow doesn't look like he's got any contact with the Flamingo
Club, so I suspect that the odds are a hundred to one against that. However,
after he has run ten times favorable, since I was so prejudiced against mind r
eading, I conclude it's collusion. Ten to one. That it's collusion rather than
accident, I mean, is ten to one, but rather more likely collusion than not is
still 10,000 to one. How is he ever going to prove he's a mind reader to me i
f I still have this terrible prejudice and now I claim it's collusion? Well, w
e can make another test. We can go to another club.
We can make other tests. I can buy dice. And we can sit in a room and try it.
We can keep on going and get rid of all the alternative theories. It will not
do any good for that mind reader to stand in front of that particular roulette
table ad infinitum. He can predict the result, but I only conclude it is coll
usion.
But he still has an opportunity to prove he's a mind reader by doing other thi
ngs. Now suppose that we go to another club, and it works, and another one and
it works. I buy dice and it works. I take him home and I build a roulette whe
el; it works. What do I conclude? I conclude he is a mind reader. And that's t
he way, but not certainty, of course. I have certain odds. After all these exp
eriences I conclude he really was a mind reader, with some odds. And now, as n
ew experiences grow, I may discover that there's a way of blowing through the
corner of your mouth unseen, and so on. And when I discover that, the odds shi
ft again, and the uncertainties always remain. But for a long time it is possi
ble to conclude, by a number of tests, that mind reading really exists. If it
does, I get extremely excited, because I didn't expect it before. I learned so
mething that I did not know, and as a physicist would love to investigate it a
s a phenomenon of nature. Does it depend upon how far he is from the ball? Wha
t about if you put sheets of glass or paper or other materials in between? Tha
t's the way all of these things have been worked out, what magnetism is, what
electricity is. And what mind reading is would also be ana-lyzable by doing en
ough experiments.
Anyway, there is an example of how to deal with uncertainty and how to look at
something scientifically. To be prejudiced against mind reading a million to
one does not mean that you can never be convinced that a man is a mind reader.
The only way that you can never be convinced that a man is a mind reader is o
ne of two things: If you are limited to a finite number of experiments, and he
won't let you do any more, or if you are infinitely prejudiced at the beginni
ng that it's absolutely impossible.
Now, another example of a test of truth, so to speak, that works in the scienc
es that would probably work in other fields to some extent is that if somethin
g is true, really so, if you continue observations and improve the effectivene
ss of the observations, the effects stand out more obviously. Not less obvious
ly. That is, if there is something really there, and you can't see good becaus
e the glass is foggy, and you polish the glass and look clearer, then it's mor
e obvious that it's there, not less.
I give an example. A professor, I think somewhere in Virginia, has done a lot
of experiments for a number of years on the subject of mental telepathy, the s
ame kind of stuff as mind reading. In his early experiments the game was to ha
ve a set of cards with various designs on them (you probably know all this, be
cause they sold the cards and people used to play this game), and you would gu
ess whether it's a circle or a triangle and so on while someone else was think
ing about it. You would sit and not see the card, and he would see the card an
d think about the card and you'd guess what it was. And in the beginning of th
ese researches, he found very remarkable effects. He found people who would gu
ess ten to fifteen of the cards correctly, when it should be on the average on
ly five. More even than that. There were some who would come very close to a h
undred percent in going through all the cards. Excellent mind readers.
A number of people pointed out a set of criticisms. One thing, for example, is
that he didn't count all the cases that didn't work. And he just took the few
that did, and then you can't do statistics anymore. And then there were a lar
ge number of apparent clues by which signals inadvertently, or advertently, we
re being transmitted from one to the other.
Various criticisms of the techniques and the statistical methods were made by
people. The technique was therefore improved. The result was that, although fi
ve cards should be the average, it averaged about six and a half cards over a
large number of tests. Never did he get anything like ten or fifteen or twenty
-five cards. Therefore, the phenomenon is that the first experiments are wrong
. The second experiments proved that the phenomenon observed in the first expe
riment was nonexistent. The fact that we have six and a half instead of five o
n the average now brings up a new possibility, that there is such a thing as m
ental telepathy, but at a much lower level. It's a different idea, because, if
the thing was really there before, having improved the methods of experiment,
the phenomenon would still be there. It would still be fifteen cards. Why is
it down to six and a half? Because the technique improved. Now it still is tha
t the six and a half is a little bit higher than the average of statistics, an
d various people criticized it more subtly and noticed a Couple of other sligh
t effects which might account for the results. It turned out that people would
get tired during the tests, according to the professor. The evidence showed t
hat they were getting a little bit lower on the average number of agreements.
Well, if you take out the cases that are low, the laws of statistics don't wor
k, and the average is a little higher than the five, and so on. So if the man
was tired, the last two or three were thrown away. Things of this nature were
improved still further. The results were that mental telepathy still exists, b
ut this time at 5.1 on the average, and therefore all the experiments which in
dicated 6.5 were false. Now what about the five? . . . Well, we can go on fore
ver, but the point is that there are always errors in experiments that are sub
tle and unknown. But the reason that I do not believe that the researchers in
mental telepathy have led to a demonstration of its existence is that as the t
echniques were improved, the phenomenon got weaker. In short, the later experi
ments in every case disproved all the results of the former experiments. If re
membered that way, then you can appreciate the situation.
There has been, of course, some considerable prejudice against mental telepath
y and things of this kind, because of its arising in the mystic business of sp
iritualism and all kinds of hocus-pocus in the nineteenth century. Prejudices
have a tendency to make it harder to prove something, but when something exist
s, it can nevertheless often lift itself out.
One of the interesting examples is the phenomenon of hypnotism. It took an awf
ul lot to convince people that hypnotism really existed. It started with Mr. M
esmer who was curing people of hysteria by letting them sit around bathtubs wi
th pipes that they would hold onto and all kinds of things. But part of the ph
enomenon was a hypnotic phenomenon, which had not been recognized as existing
before. And you can imagine from this beginning how hard it was to get anybody
to pay enough attention to do enough experiments. Fortunately for us, the phe
nomenon of hypnotism has been extracted and demonstrated beyond a doubt even t
hough it had weird beginnings. So it's not the weird beginnings which make the
thing that people are prejudiced against. They start prejudiced against it, b
ut after the investigation, then you could change your mind.
Another principle of the same general idea is that the effect we are describin
g has to have a certain permanence or constancy of some kind, that if a phenom
enon is difficult to experiment with, if seen from many sides, it has to have
some aspects which are more or less the same.
If we come to the case of flying saucers, for example, we have the difficulty
that almost everybody who observes flying saucers sees something different, un
less they were previously informed of what they were supposed to see. So the h
istory of flying saucers consists of orange balls of light, blue spheres which
bounce on the floor, gray fogs which disappear, gossamer-like streams which e
vaporate into the air, tin, round flat things out of which objects come with f
unny shapes that are something like a human being.
If you have any appreciation for the complexities of nature and for the evolut
ion of life on earth, you can understand the tremendous variety of possible fo
rms that life would have. People say life can't exist without air, but it does
under water; in fact it started in the sea. You have to be able to move aroun
d and have nerves. Plants have no nerves. Just think a few minutes of the vari
ety of life that there is. And then you see that the thing that comes out of t
he saucer isn't going to be anything like what anybody describes. Very unlikel
y. It's very unlikely that flying saucers would arrive here, in this particula
r era, without having caused something of a stir earlier. Why didn't they come
earlier? Just when we're getting scientific enough to appreciate the possibil
ity of traveling from one place to another, here come the flying saucers.
There are various arguments of a not complete nature that indicate some doubt
that the flying saucers are coming from Venus-in fact, considerable doubt. So
much doubt that it is going to take a lot of very accurate experiments, and th
e lack of consistency and permanency of the characteristics of the observed ph
enomenon means that it isn't there. Most likely. It's not worth paying much mo
re attention to, unless it begins to sharpen up.
I have argued flying saucers with lots of people. (Incidentally, I must explai
n that because I am a scientist does not mean that I have not had contact with
human beings. Ordinary human beings. I know what they are like. I like to go
to Las Vegas and talk to the show girls and the gamblers and so on. I have ban
ged around a lot in my life, so I know about ordinary people.) Anyway, I have
to argue about flying saucers on the beach with people, you know. And I was in
terested in this: they keep arguing that it is possible. And that's true. It i
s possible. They do not appreciate that the problem is not to demonstrate whet
her it's possible or not but whether it's going on or not. Whether it's probab
ly occurring or not, not whether it could occur.
That brings me to the fourth kind of attitude toward ideas, and that is that t
he problem is not what is possible. That's not the problem. The problem is wha
t is probable, what is happening. It does no good to demonstrate again and aga
in that you can't disprove that this could be a flying saucer. We have to gues
s ahead of time whether we have to worry about the Martian invasion. We have t
o make a judgment about whether it is a flying saucer, whether it's reasonable
, whether it's likely. And we do that on the basis of a lot more experience th
an whether it's just possible, because the number of things that are possible
is not fully appreciated by the average individual. And it is also not clear,
then, to them how many things that are possible must not be happening. That it
's impossible that everything that is possible is happening. And there is too
much variety, so most likely anything that you think of that is possible isn't
true. In fact that's a general principle in physics theories: no matter what
a guy thinks of, it's almost always false. So there have been five or ten theo
ries that have been right in the history of physics, and those are the ones we
want. But that doesn't mean that everything's false.We'll find out.
To give an example of a case in which trying to find out what is possible is m
istaken for what is probable, I could consider the beatification of Mother Sea
ton. There was a saintly woman who did very many good works for many people. T
here is no doubt about that-excuse me, there's very little doubt about that. A
nd it has already been announced that she has demonstrated heroicity of virtue
s. At that stage in the Catholic system for determining saints, the next quest
ion is to consider miracles. So the next problem we have is to decide whether
she performed miracles.
There was a girl who had acute leukemia, and the doctors don't know how to cur
e her. In the duress and troubles of the family in the last minutes, many thin
gs are tried-different medicines, all kinds of things. Among other things is t
he possibility of pinning a ribbon which has touched a bone of Mother Seaton t
o the sheet of the girl and also arranging that several hundred people pray fo
r her health. And the result is that she-no, not the result-then she gets bett
er from leukemia.
A special tribunal is arranged to investigate this. Very formal, very careful,
very scientific. Everything has to be just so. Every question has to be asked
very carefully Everything that is asked is written down in a book very carefu
lly. There are a thousand pages of writing, translated into Italian when it go
t to the Vatican. Wrapped in special strings, and so on. And the tribunal asks
the doctors in the case what this was like. And they all agreed that there wa
s no other case, that this was completely unusual, that at no time before had
somebody with this kind of leukemia had the disease stopped for such a long pe
riod of time. Done. True, we don't know what happened. Nobody knows what happe
ned. It was possible it was a miracle. The question is not whether it was poss
ible it was a miracle. It is only a question of whether it is probable it was
a miracle. And the problem for the tribunal is to determine whether it is prob
able that it is a miracle. It's a question to determine whether Mother Seaton
had anything to do with it. Oh, that they did. In Rome. I didn't find out how
they did it, but that's the crux of the matter.
The question is whether the cure had anything to do with the process associate
d with the praying of Mother Seaton. In order to answer a question like that,
one would have to gather all cases in which prayers had been given in the favo
r of Mother Seaton for the cures of various people, in various states of disea
se. They would then have to compare the success of the cure of these people wi
th the average cure of people for whom such prayers were not made, and so fort
h. It's an honest, straightforward way to do it, and there is nothing dishones
t and nothing sacriligious about it, because if it's a miracle, it will hold u
p. And if it's not a miracle, the scientific method will destroy it.
The people who study medicine and try to cure people are interested in every m
ethod that they can find. And they have developed clinical techniques in which
(all these problems are very difficult) they are trying all kinds of medicine
s too, and the woman got better. She also had chicken pox just before she got
better. Has that got anything to do with it? So there is a definite clinical w
ay to test what it is that might have something to do with it-by making compar
isons and so forth. The problem is not to determine that something surprising
happens. The problem is to make really good use of that to determine what to d
o next, because if it does turn out that it has something to do with the praye
rs of Mother Seaton, then it is worthwhile exhuming the body, which has been d
one, collecting the bones, touching many ribbons to the bones, so as to get se
condary things to tie on other beds.
I now turn to another kind of principle or idea, and that is that there is no
sense in calculating the probability or the chance that something happens afte
r it happens. A lot of scientists don't even appreciate this. In fact, the fir
st time I got into an argument over this was when I was a graduate student at
Princeton, and there was a guy in the psychology department who was running ra
t races. I mean, he has a T-shaped thing, and the rats go, and they go to the
right, and the left, and so on. And it's a general principle of psychologists
that in these tests they arrange so that the odds that the things that happen
happen by chance is small, in fact, less than one in twenty. That means that o
ne in twenty of their laws is probably wrong. But the statistical ways of calc
ulating the odds, like coin flipping if the rats were to go randomly right and
left, are easy to work out. This man had designed an experiment which would s
how something which I do not remember, if the rats always went to the right, l
et's say. I can't remember exactly. He had to do a great number of tests, beca
use, of course, they could go to the right accidentally, so to get it down to
one in twenty by odds, he had to do a number of them. And its hard to do, and
he did his number. Then he found that it didn't work. They went to the right,
and they went to the left, and so on. And then he noticed, most remarkably, th
at they alternated, first right, then left, then right, then left. And then he
ran to me, and he said, "Calculate the probability for me that they should al
ternate, so that I can see if it is less than one in twenty." I said, "It prob
ably is less than one in twenty, but it doesn't count." He said, "Why?" I said
, "Because it doesn't make any sense to calculate after the event. You see, yo
u found the peculiarity, and so you selected the peculiar case."
For example, I had the most remarkable experience this evening. While coming i
n here, I saw license plate ANZ 912. Calculate for me, please, the odds that o
f all the license plates in the state of Washington I should happen to see ANZ
912. Well, it's a ridiculous thing. And, in the same way, what he must do is
this: The fact that the rat directions alternate suggests the possibility that
rats alternate. If he wants to test this hypothesis, one in twenty, he cannot
do it from the same data that gave him the clue. He must do another experimen
t all over again and then see if they alternate. He did, and it didn't work.
Many people believe things from anecdotes in which there is only one case inst
ead of a large number of cases. There are stories of different kinds of influe
nces. Things that happened to people, and they all remember, and how do you ex
plain that, they say. I can remember things in my life, too. And I give two ex
amples of most remarkable experiences.
The first was when I was in a fraternity at M.I.T. I was upstairs typewriting
a theme on something about philosophy. And I was completely engrossed, not thi
nking of anything but the theme, when all of a sudden in a most mysterious fas
hion, there swept through my mind the idea: my grandmother has died. Now, of c
ourse, I exaggerate slightly, as you should in all such stories. I just sort o
f half got the idea for a minute. It wasn't something strong, but I exaggerate
slightly. That's important. Immediately after that the telephone rang downsta
irs. I remember this distinctly for the reason you will now hear. The man answ
ered the telephone, and he called, "Hey, Pete!" My name isn't Peter. It was fo
r somebody else. My grandmother was perfectly healthy, and there's nothing to
it. Now what we have to do is to accumulate a large number of these in order t
o fight the few cases when it could happen. It could happen. It might have occ
urred. Its not impossible, and from then on am I supposed to believe in the mi
racle that I can tell when my grandmother is dying from something in my head?
Another thing about these anecdotes is that all the conditions are not describ
ed. And for that reason I describe another, less happy, circumstance.
I met a girl at about thirteen or fourteen whom I loved very much, and we took
about thirteen years to get married. It's not my present wife, as you will se
e. And she got tuberculosis and had it, actually, for several years. And when
she got tuberculosis I gave her a clock which had nice big numbers that turned
over rather than ones with a dial, and she liked it. The day she got sick I g
ave it to her, and she kept it by the side of her bed for four, five, six year
s while she got sicker and sicker. And ultimately she died. She died at 9:22 i
n the evening. And the clock stopped at 9:22 in the evening and never went aga
in. Fortunately, I noticed some part of the anecdote I have to tell you. After
five years the clock gets kind of weak in the knees. Every once in a while I
had to fix it, so the wheels were loose. And secondly, the nurse who had to wr
ite on the death certificate the time of death, because the light was low in t
he room, took the clock and turned it up a little bit to see the numbers a lit
tle bit better and put it down. If I hadn't noticed that, again I would be in
some trouble. So one must be very careful in such anecdotes to remember all th
e conditions, and even the ones that you don't notice may be the explanation o
f the mystery.
So, in short, you can't prove anything by one occurrence, or two occurrences,
and so on. Everything has to be checked out very carefully. Otherwise you beco
me one of these people who believe all kinds of crazy stuff and doesn't unders
tand the world they're in. Nobody understands the world they're in, but some p
eople are better off at it than others.
The next kind of technique that's involved is statistical sampling. I referred
to that idea when I said they tried to arrange things so that they had one in
twenty odds. The whole subject of statistical sampling is somewhat mathematic
al, and I won't go into the details. The general idea is kind of obvious. If y
ou want to know how many people are taller than six feet tall, then you just p
ick people out at random, and you see that maybe forty of them are more than s
ix feet so you guess that maybe everybody is. Sounds stupid. Well, it is and i
t isn't. If you pick the hundred out by seeing which ones come through a low d
oor, you're going to get it wrong. If you pick the hundred out by looking at y
our friends you'll get it wrong because they're all in one place in the countr
y. But if you pick out a way that as far as anybody can figure out has no conn
ection with their height at all, then if you find forty out of a hundred, then
, in a hundred million there will be more or less forty million. How much more
or how much less can be worked out quite accurately. In fact, it turns out th
at to be more or less correct to 1 percent, you have to have 10,000 samples. P
eople don't realize how difficult it is to get the accuracy high. For only 1 o
r 2 percent you need 10,000 tries.
The people who judge the value of advertising in television use this method. N
o, they think they use this method. It's a very difficult thing to do, and the
most difficult part of it is the choice of the samples. How they can arrange
to have an average guy put into his house this gadget by which they remember w
hich TV programs he's looking at, or what kind of a guy an average guy is who
will agree to be paid to write in a log, and how accurately he writes in the l
og what he's listening to every fifteen minutes when a bell goes off, we don't
know. We have no right, therefore, to judge from the thousand, or 10,000, and
that's all it is, people who do this, who study what the average person is lo
oking at, because there's no question at all that the sample is off. This busi
ness of statistics is well known, and the problem of getting a good sample is
a very serious one, and everybody knows about it, and it's a scientifically OK
business. Except if you don't do it. The conclusion from all the researchers
is that all people in the world are as dopey as can be, and the only way to te
ll them anything is to perpetually insult their intelligence. This conclusion
may be correct. On the other hand, it may be false. And we are making a terrib
le mistake if it is false. It is, therefore, a matter of considerable responsi
bility to get straightened out on how to test whether or not people pay attent
ion to different kinds of advertising.
As I say, I know a lot of people. Ordinary people. And I think their intellige
nce is being insulted. I mean there's all kinds of things. You turn on the rad
io; if you have any soul, you go crazy. People have a way-I haven't learned it
yet-of not listening to it. I don't know how to do it. So in order to prepare
this talk I turned on the radio for three minutes when I was at home, and I h
eard two things.
First, I turned it on and I heard Indian music-Indians from New Mexico, Navajo
s. I recognized it. I had heard them in Gallup, and I was delighted. I won't g
ive an imitation of the war chant, although I would like to. I'm tempted. It's
very interesting, and it's deep in their religion, and it's something that th
ey respect. So I would report honestly that I was pleased to see that on the r
adio there was something interesting. That was cultural. So we have to be hone
st. If we're going to report, you listen for three minutes, that's what you he
ar. So I kept listening. I have to report that I cheated a little bit. I kept
listening because I liked it; it was good. It stopped. And a man said, "We are
on the warpath against automobile accidents." And then he went on and said ho
w you have to be careful in automobile accidents. That's not an insult to inte
lligence; it's an insult to the Navajo Indians, and to their religion and thei
r ideas. And so I listened until I heard that there is a drink of some kind, I
think it's called Pepsi-Cola, for people who think young. So I said, all righ
t, that's enough. I'll think about that a while. First of all, the whole idea
is crazy. What is a person who thinks young? I suppose it is a person who like
s to do things that young people like to do. Alright, let them think that. The
n this is a drink for such people. I suppose that the people in the research d
epartment of the drink company decided how much lime to put in as follows: "We
ll, we used to have a drink that was just an ordinary drink, but we have to re
arrange it, not for ordinary people but for special people who think young. Mo
re sugar." The whole idea that a drink is especially for people who think youn
g is an absolute absurdity.
So as a result of this, we get perpetually insulted, our intelligence always i
nsulted. I have an idea of how to beat it. People have all kinds of plans, you
know, and the ETC. is trying to straighten it out. I've got an easy plan. Sup
pose that you purchased the use for thirty days of twenty-six billboards in Gr
eater Seattle, eighteen of them lighted. And you put onto the billboards a sig
n which says, "Has your intelligence been insulted? Don't buy the product." An
d then you buy a few spots on the television or the radio. In the middle of so
me program a man comes up and says, "Pardon me, I'm sorry to interrupt you, bu
t if you find that any of the advertising that you hear insults your intellige
nce or in any way disturbs you, we would advise you not to buy the product," a
nd things will be straightened out as quickly as it can be. Thank you.
Now if anybody has any money that they want to throw around, I'd advise that a
s an experiment to find out about the intelligence of the average television l
ooker. It's an interesting question. It's a quick shortcut to find out about t
heir intelligence. But maybe it's a little bit expensive.
You say, "Its not very important. The advertisers have to sell their wares," a
nd so on and so on. On the other hand, the whole idea that the average person
is unintelligent is a very dangerous idea. Even if it's true, it shouldn't be
dealt with the way it's dealt with.
Newspaper reporters and commentators-there is a large number of them who assum
e that the public is stupider than they are, that the public cannot understand
things that they [the reporters and the commentators] cannot understand. Now
that is ridiculous. I'm not trying to say they're dumber than the average man,
but they're dumber in some way than somebody else. If I ever have to explain
something scientific to a reporter, and he says what is the idea? Well, I expl
ain it in words of one syllable, as I would explain it to my neighbor. He does
n't understand it, which is possible, because he's brought up differently-he d
oesn't fix washing machines, he doesn't know what a motor is, or something. In
other words, he has no technical experience. There are lots of engineers in t
he world. There are lots of mechanically minded people. There are lots of peop
le who are smarter than the reporter, say, in science, for example. It is, the
refore, his duty to report the thing, whether he understands it or not, accura
tely and in the way it's been given. The same goes in economics and other situ
ations. The reporters appreciate the fact that they don't understand the compl
icated business about international trade, but they report, more or less, what
somebody says, pretty closely. But when it comes to science, for some reason
or another, they will pat me on the head and explain to dopey me that the dope
y people aren't going to understand it because he, dope, can't understand it.
But I know that some people can understand it. Not everybody who reads the new
spaper has to understand every article in the newspaper. Some people aren't in
terested in science. Some are. At least they could find out what it's all abou
t instead of discovering that an atomic bullet was used that came out of a mac
hine that weighed seven tons. I can't read the articles in the paper. I don't
know what they mean. I don't know what kind of a machine it was just because i
t weighed seven tons. And there are now sixty-two kinds of particles, and I wo
uld like to know what atomic bullet he is referring to.
This whole business of statistical sampling and the determining of the propert
ies of people by this manner is a very serious business altogether. It's comin
g into its own, but it's used very often, and we have to be very, very careful
with it. It's used for choice of personnel-by giving examinations to people-m
arriage counseling, and things of this kind. It's used to determine whether pe
ople get into college, in a way that I am not in favor of, but I will leave my
arguments on this. I will address them to the people who decide who gets into
Caltech. And after I have had my arguments, I will come back and tell you som
ething about it. But this has one serious feature, among others, aside from th
e difficulties of sampling. There is a tendency, then, to use only what can be
measured as a criterion. That is, the spirit of the man, the way he feels tow
ard things, may be difficult to measure. There is some tendency to have interv
iews and to try to correct this. So much the better. But it's easier to have m
ore examinations and not have to waste the time with the interviews, and the r
esult is that only those things which can be measured, actually which they thi
nk they can measure, are what count, and a lot of good things are left out, a
lot of good guys are missed. So it's a dangerous business and has to be very c
arefully checked. The things like marriage questions, "How are you getting alo
ng with your husband," and so on, that appear in magazines are all nonsense. T
hey go something like this: "This has been tested on a thousand couples." And
then you can tell how they answered and how you answered and tell if you are h
appily married. What you do is the following. You make up a bunch of questions
, like "Do you give him breakfast in bed?" and so on and so on. And then you g
ive this questionnaire to a thousand people. And you have an independent way o
f telling whether they are happily married, like asking them, or something. Bu
t never mind. It doesn't make any difference what it is, even if the test is p
erfect. That's not the part where the trouble is. Then you do the following. Y
ou see about all the ones who are happy-how did they answer about the breakfas
t in bed, how did they answer about this, how did they answer about that? You
see it's exactly the same as my rat race, with right and left. They have decid
ed on the odds of the thing in terms of the one sample. What they ought to do
to be honest is to take the same test that has now been designed, in which the
y know how to make the score. They've decided this gets five points, that gets
ten points, in such a way that the thousand that they tried it on get marvelo
us scores if they are happy and lousy scores if they're not. But now is the te
st of the test. They cannot use the sample which determined the scoring for th
em. That's going backwards. They must take the test to another thousand people
, independently, and run it out to see whether the happy ones are the ones tha
t score high, or not. They do not do that, because it's too much trouble, A, a
nd the few times that they tried it, B, it showed that the test was no good.
Now, looking at the troubles that we have with all the unscientific and peculi
ar things in the world, there are a number of them which cannot be associated
with difficulties in how to think, I think, but are just due to some lack of i
nformation. In particular, there are believers in astrology, of which, no doub
t, there are a number here. Astrologists say that there are days when it's bet
ter to go to the dentist than other days. There are days when it's better to f
ly in an airplane, for you, if you are born on such a day and such and such an
hour. And its all calculated by very careful rules in terms of the position o
f the stars. If it were true it would be very interesting. Insurance people wo
uld be very interested to change the insurance rates on people if they follow
the astrological rules, because they have a better chance when they are in the
airplane. Tests to determine whether people who go on the day that they are n
ot supposed to go are worse off or not have never been made by the astrologers
. The question of whether it's a good day for business or a bad day for busine
ss has never been established. Now what of it?
Maybe it's still true, yes. On the other hand, there's an awful lot of informa
tion that indicates that it isn't true. Because we have a lot of knowledge abo
ut how things work, what people are, what the world is, what those stars are,
what the planets are that you are looking at, what makes them go around more o
r less, where they're going to be in the next 2000 years is completely known.
They don't have to look up to find out where it is. And furthermore, if you lo
ok very carefully at the different astrologers they don't agree with each othe
r, so what are you going to do? Disbelieve it. There's no evidence at all for
it. It's pure nonsense. The only way you can believe it is to have a general l
ack of information about the stars and the world and what the rest of the thin
gs look like. If such a phenomenon existed it would be most remarkable, in the
face of all the other phenomena that exist, and unless someone can demonstrat
e it to you with a real experiment, with a real test, took people who believe
and people who didn't believe and made a test, and so on, then there's no poin
t in listening to them. Tests of this kind, incidentally, have been made in th
e early days of science. It's rather interesting. I found out that in the earl
y days, like in the time when they were discovering oxygen and so on, people m
ade such experimental attempts to find out, for example, whether missionaries-
it sounds silly; it only sounds silly because you're afraid to test it-whether
good people like missionaries who pray and so on were less likely to be in a
shipwreck than others. And so when missionaries were going to far countries, t
hey checked in the shipwrecks whether the missionaries were less likely to dro
wn than other people. And it turned out that there was no difference. So lots
of people don't believe that it makes any difference.
There are, if you turn on the radio-I don't know how it is up here; it must be
the same-in California you hear all kinds of faith healers. I've seen them on
television. It's another one of those things that it exhausts me to try to ex
plain why it's rather a ridiculous proposition. There is, in fact, an entire r
eligion that's respectable, so called, that's called Christian Science, that's
based on the idea of faith healing. If it were true, it could be established,
not by the anecdotes of a few people but by the careful checks, by the techni
cally good clinical methods which are used on any other way of curing diseases
. If you believe in faith healing, you have a tendency to avoid other ways of
getting healed. It takes you a little longer to get to the doctor, possibly. S
ome people believe it strongly enough that it takes them longer to get to the
doctor. It's possible that the faith healing isn't so good. It's possible-we a
re not sure-that it isn't. And its therefore possible that there is some dange
r in believing in faith healing, that its not a triviality, not like astrology
wherein it doesn't make a lot of difference. It's just inconvenient for the p
eople who believe in it that they have to do things on certain days. It may be
, and I would like to know-it should be investigated-everybody has a right to
know-whether more people have been hurt or helped by believing in Christ's abi
lity to heal; whether there is more healing or harming by such a thing. It's p
ossible either way. It should be investigated. It shouldn't be left lying for
people to believe in without an investigation.
Not only are there faith healers on the radio, there are also radio religion p
eople who use the Bible to predict all kinds of phenomena that are going to ha
ppen. I listened intrigued to a man who in a dream visited God and received al
l kinds of special information for his congregation, etc. Well, this unscienti
fic age . . . But I don't know what to do with that one. I don't know what rul
e of reasoning to use to show right away that it's nutty. I think it just belo
ngs to a general lack of understanding of how complicated the world is and how
elaborate and how unlikely it would be that such a thing would work.
But I can't disprove, of course, without investigating more carefully. Maybe o
ne way would be always to ask them how do they know it's true and to remember
maybe that they are wrong. Just remember that much anyway, because you may kee
p yourself from sending in too much money
There are also, of course, in the world a number of phenomena that you cannot
beat that are just the result of a general stupidity. And we all do stupid thi
ngs, and we know some people do more than others, but there is no use in tryin
g to check who does the most. There is some attempt to protect this by governm
ent regulation, to protect this stupidity, but it doesn't work a hundred perce
nt.
For example, I went on a visit to one of the desert sites to buy land. You kno
w they sell land, these promoters-there's a new city going to be built. It's e
xciting. It's marvelous. You must go. Just imagine yourself in a desert with n
othing but some flags poked here in the ground with numbers on them and street
signs with names. And so you drive in the car across the desert to find the f
ourth street and so on to get to the lot 369, which is the one for you, you're
thinking. And you stand there kicking sand in this thing discussing with the
salesman why it's advantageous to have a corner lot and how the driveway will
be good because it will be easier to get into from that side. Worse, believe i
t or not, you find yourself discussing the beach club, which is going to be on
that sea, what the rules of membership are and how many friends you're allowe
d to bring. I swear, I got into that condition.
So when the time comes to buy the land, it turns out that the state has made a
n attempt to help you. So they have a description of this particular thing tha
t you have read, and the man who sells you the land says it's the law, we have
to give you this to read. They give it to you to read, and it says that this
is very much like many other real estate deals in the state of California and
so on and so on and so on. And among other things, I read that although they s
ay that they want to have fifty thousand people at this site, there is not wat
er enough for a number which I better not say or I'll get accused of libel, bu
t it was very much less-I can't remember it exactly-it was in the neighborhood
of five thousand people, somewhere like that. So, of course they had noticed
that this was in there before, and they told us that they had just found water
at another site, far away, that they were going to pump down. And when I aske
d about it, they explained to me very carefully that they had just discov- ere
d this and that they hadn't had time to get it into the brochure from the stat
e. Hmmmm.
I'll give another example of the same thing. I was in Atlantic City, and I wen
t into one of these-well, it was sort of a store. There were a lot of seats, a
nd people were sitting there listening to a man speaking. And he was very inte
resting. He knew all about food, and he was talking about nutrition, different
things. I remember several of the important statements which he made, such as
"even worms won't eat white flour." That kind of stuff. It was good. It was i
nteresting. It was true-maybe it wasn't true about the worms, but it was good
stuff about proteins and so on. And then he went on and described the Federal
Pure Food and Drug Act, and he explained how it protects you. He explained tha
t on every product that claims to be a good health food that's supposed to hel
p you with minerals and this and that, there must be a label on the bottle whi
ch tells exactly what's in it, what it does, and all claims must be explicit,
so that if it's wrong, so on and so on. He gives them everything. I said, "How
is he going to make any money? Out come the bottles. It comes out, finally, t
hat he sells this special health food, of course, in a brownish bottle. And it
just so happens that he has just come in, and he's been in a hurry, and he ha
sn't had time to put the labels on. And here are the labels that belong on the
bottles, and here are the bottles, and he's in a hurry to sell them, and he g
ives you the bottle, and you stick it on yourself. That man had courage. He fi
rst explained what to do, what to worry about, and then he went ahead and did
it.
I found another lecture which was somewhat analogous to that one. And that was
the second Danz lecture given by myself. I started out by pointing out that t
hings were completely unscientific, that things were uncertain, particularly i
n political matters, and that there were the two nations, Russia and the Unite
d States, at odds with each other. And then by some mystic hocus-pocus it came
out that we were the good guys and they were the bad guys. Yet, at the beginn
ing, there was no way to decide which was the better of the two. In fact, that
was the main point of the lecture. So by some sort of magic I produced some k
ind of relative certainty out of uncertainty. I told you about the bottle with
the labels, and then I came out on the other end with a label on my bottle. H
ow did I do it? You have to think about it a little bit. One thing, of course,
that we can be certain of, once we're uncertain, and that is that we are unce
rtain. Somebody says "No, maybe I'm sure." Actually, though, the gimmick in th
at particular lecture, the weak point in the whole thing, the thing that requi
res further development and study is this one: I made an impassioned plea for
the idea that it's good to have an open channel, that there's value in uncerta
inty, that it's more important to permit us to discover new things, rather tha
n to choose a solution that we now make up-that to choose a solution, no matte
r how we choose it now is to choose a much worse thing than what we would get
if we waited and worked things out. And that's where I made the choice, and I
am not sure of that choice. Okay. I have now destroyed authority.
Associated with these problems of lack of information and so forth, but partic
ularly lack of information, there are a number of phenomena that are more seri
ous, I believe, than astrology.
I, in preparation for this lecture, investigated something that was in my town
, in the shopping center. There was a store with a flag in front. And it's the
Americanism Center, Altadena Americanism Center. And so I went into the Ameri
canism Center to find out what it is, and it's a volunteer organization. And o
n the front outside, there is a Constitution and the Bill of Rights and so on,
and a letter which explains their purpose, which is to maintain rights and so
on, all in accordance with the Constitution and the Bill of Rights and so on.
That's the general idea. What they do in there is simply educative. They have
books that people could buy on the various subjects that help to teach the id
eas of citizenship and so on, and they have, among other books, also Congressi
onal records, pamphlets on Congressional investigations and so on, so that peo
ple who are studying these problems can read them. They have study groups whic
h meet at night, and so on. So, being interested in rights for people, I asked
, since I said I didn't know very much about it, I would like a book on the pr
oblem of the freedom of the Negroes to vote in the South. There was nothing. Y
es, there was. There was one thing which turned up later, two things which I s
aw out of the corner of my eye. One was what went on in Mississippi according
to the Oxford city fathers, and the other was a little pamphlet called "The Na
tional Association for the Advancement of Colored People and Communism."
So I discussed it at some greater length to discover what was going on and tal
ked to the lady for a while, and she explained among other things (we talked a
bout many things-we did this on a friendly basis, you will be surprised to hea
r) that she was not a member of the Birch Society but there was something that
you could say for the Birch Society, she saw some movie about it and so on, a
nd there was something that she could say for it. You're | not a fence sitter
when you're in the Birch Society. At least you know what you're for, because y
ou don't have to join it if you don't want to, and this is what Mr. Welch said
, and this is the way the Birch Society is, and if you believe in this then yo
u join, and if you don't believe in this then you shouldn't join. It sounds ju
st like the Communist Party. It's all very well if they have no power. But if
they have power, it's a completely different situation. I tried to explain to
her that this is not the kind of freedom that was being talked about, that in
any organization there ought to be the possibility of discussion. That fence s
itting is an art, and it's difficult, and it's important to do, rather than to
go headlong in one direction or the other. Its just better to have action, is
n't it, than to sit on the fence? Not if you're not sure which way to go, it i
sn't.
So I bought a couple of things there, just at random that they had. One of the
things was called "The Dan Smoot Report"-it's a good name-and it talked about
the Constitution, and a general idea I'll outline: that the Constitution was
right the way it was written in the first place. And all the modifications tha
t have come in are just the mistakes. Fundamentalists, only not in the Bible b
ut in the Constitution. And then it goes on to give the ratings of Congressmen
in votes, how they voted. And it said, very specifically and after explaining
about their ideas, "The following give the ratings of the congressmen and sen
ators with regard to whether they vote for or against the Constitution." Mind
you that these ratings are not just an opinion, but they are based on fact. Th
ey are a matter of voting record. Fact. There's no opinion at all. It's just t
he voting record, and, of course, each item is either for or against the Const
itution. Naturally. Medicare is against the Constitution, and so on. I tried t
o explain that they violate their own principles. According to the Constitutio
n there are supposed to be votes. It isn't supposed to be automatically determ
inable ahead of time on each one of the items what's right and what's wrong. O
therwise there wouldn't be the bother to invent the Senate to have the votes.
As long as you have the votes at all, then the purpose of the votes is to try
to make up your mind which is the way to go. And it isn't possible for somebod
y to determine by fact ahead of time what is the situation. It violates its ow
n principle.
It starts out all right, with the good, and love, and Christ, and so on, and i
t builds itself up until it's afraid of an enemy. And then it forgets its orig
inal idea. It turns itself inside out and becomes absolutely contrary to the b
eginning. I believe that the people who start some of these things, especially
the volunteer ladies of Altadena, have a good heart and understand a little b
it that it's good, the Constitution, and so on, but they are led astray in the
system of the thing. How, I can't exactly get at, and what to do to keep from
doing this, I don't exactly know.
I went still further into the thing and found out what the study group was abo
ut, and if you don't mind I'll tell you what that was about. They gave me some
papers. There were a lot of chairs, you see, in the room, and they explained
to me, yes, that evening they had a study group, and they gave me a thing whic
h described what they were going to study. And I made some notes from it. It h
ad to do with the S.P.X.R.A. In 1943 the S.P.X. research associates-which turn
s out to be the ... well, I'll tell you what it turns out to be-came into bein
g through the professional interest of intelligence officers then on active du
ty in the armed forces of the United States concerning the Soviet revival of a
long dormant tenth principle of warfare. Paralysis. See the evil. Dormant. My
sterious. Frightening. The mystic people of the military orders have had princ
iples of warfare since the Roman legions. Number one. Number two. Number three
. This is number ten. We don't have to know what number seven is. The whole id
ea that there are long dormant principles of warfare, much less that there is
a tenth principle of warfare, is an absurdity. And then what is this principle
of paralysis? How are they going to use the idea? The boogie man is now gener
ated. How do you use the boogie man? You use the boogie man as follows: This e
ducational program concerns itself with all the areas where Soviet pressure ca
n be used to paralyze the American will to resist. Agriculture, arts, and cult
ural exchange. Science, education, information media, finance, economics, gove
rnment, labor, law, medicine, and our armed forces, and religion, that most se
nsitive of areas. In other words, we now have an open machine for pointing out
that everybody who says something that you don't agree with has been paralyze
d by the mystic force of the tenth principle of warfare.
This is a phenomenon analogous to paranoia. It is impossible to disprove the t
enth principle. It's only possible if you have a certain balance, a certain un
derstanding of the world to appreciate that it's out of balance, to think that
the Supreme Court-which turns out to be an "instrument of global conquest"-ha
s been paralyzed. Everything is paralyzed. You see how fearful it becomes, the
terrible power which is demonstrated again and again by one example after the
other of this fearful force which is made up.
This describes what a paranoia is like. A woman gets nervous. She begins to su
spect that her husband is trying to make trouble for her. She doesn't like to
let him into the house. He tries to get into the house, proves that he's tryin
g to make trouble for her. He gets a friend to try to talk to her. She knows t
hat its a friend, and she knows in her mind, which is going to one side, that
this is only further evidence of the terrible fright and the fear that she's b
uilding up in her mind. Her neighbors come over to console her for a while. It
works fairly well, for a while. They go back to their houses. The friend of t
he husband goes to visit them. They are spoiled now, and they are going to tel
l her husband all the terrible things she said. Oh dear, what did she say? And
he's going to be able to use them against her. She calls up the police depart
ment. She says, "I'm afraid." She's locked in her house now. She says, "I'm af
raid." Somebody's trying to get into the house. They come, they try to talk to
her, they realize that there is nobody trying to get into the house. They hav
e to go away. She remembers that her husband was important in the city. She re
members that he had a friend in the police department. The police department i
s only part of the scheme. It only proves it once again. She looks through the
window of the house, and she sees across the way someone stopping at a neighb
or's house. What are they talking about? In the backyard, she sees something c
oming up over a bush. They're watching her with a telescope! It turns out late
r to be some children playing in the back with a stick. A continuous and perpe
tual buildup, until the entire population is involved. The lawyer that she cal
led, she remembers, was the lawyer once for a friend of her husband's. The doc
tor who has been trying to get her to the hospital is now obviously on the sid
e of the husband.
The only way out is to have some balance, to think that it's impossible that t
he whole city is against her, that everybody is going to pay attention to this
husband of mine who's such a dope, that everybody's going to do all these thi
ngs, that there's a complete accumulation. All the neighbors, everybody's agai
nst her. It's out of proportion. It's only out of proportion. How can you expl
ain to somebody who hasn't got a sense of proportion?
And so it is with these people. They don't have a sense of proportion. And so
they will believe in such a possibility as the Soviet tenth principle of warfa
re. The only way that I can think to beat the game is to point the following o
ut. They're right. And like my friend with the bottle with the label, the Sovi
ets are very, very ingenious and clever indeed. They even tell us what they're
doing to us. You see, these people, these research associates are really in t
he hire of the Soviets who are using this method of paralysis. And what they w
ant us to do is to lose faith in the Supreme Court, to lose faith in the Agric
ulture Department, to lose faith in the scientists and all the people who help
us in all kinds of ways and so on and so on, and lose faith in all sorts of w
ays, and it's a way that they have entered into this movement of freedom that
everybody wanted, this thing with all the flags and the Constitution, and they
've gotten in on it, and they're getting in there, and they're going to paraly
ze it. Proof. In their own words. S.P.X.R.A. has qualified, under oath, in the
United States court as the leading, American authority on the tenth principle
. Where did they get the information? There's only one place. From the Soviet
Union.
This paranoia, this phenomenon-I shouldn't call it a paranoia, I'm not a docto
r, I don't know-but this phenomenon is a terrible one, and it has caused manki
nd and individuals a terrible unhappiness.
Yingkai has read up to here
And another example of the same thing is the famous Protocol of the Elders of
Zion, which was a fake document. It was supposed to be a meeting of the old Je
ws and the leaders of Zion in which they had gotten together and cooked up a s
cheme for the domination of the world. International bankers, international, y
ou know... a great big marvelous machine! Just out of proportion. But it wasn'
t so far out of proportion that people didn't believe it; and it was one of th
e strongest forces in the development of anti-Semitism.
What I am asking for in many directions is an abject honesty. I think that we
should have a more abject honesty in political matters. And I think we'll be f
reer that way.
I would like to point out that people are not honest. Scientists are not hones
t at all, either. It's useless. Nobody's honest. Scientists are not honest. An
d people usually believe that they are. That makes it worse. By honest I don't
mean that you only tell what's true. But you make clear the entire situation.
You make clear all the information that is required for somebody else who is
intelligent to make up their mind.
For example, in connection with nuclear testing, I don't know myself whether I
am for nuclear testing or against nuclear testing. There are reasons on both
sides. It makes radioactivity, and it's dangerous, and it's also very bad to h
ave a war. But whether it's going to be more likely to have a war or less like
ly to have a war because you test, I don't know. Whether preparation will stop
the war, or lack of preparation, I don't know. So I'm not trying to say I'm o
n either side. That's why I can be abjectly honest on this one.
The big question comes, of course, whether there's a danger from radioactivity
. In my opinion the greatest danger and the greatest question on nuclear testi
ng is the question of its future effects. The deaths and the radioactivity whi
ch would be caused by the war would be so many times more than the nuclear tes
ting that the effects that it would have in the future are far more important
than the infinitesimal amount of radioactivity produced now. How infinitesimal
is the amount, however? Radioactivity is bad. Nobody knows a good effect of g
eneral radioactivity. So if you increase the general amount of radioactivity i
n the air, you are producing something not good. Therefore nuclear testing in
this respect produces something not good. If you are a scientist, then, you ha
ve the right and should point out this fact.
On the other hand, the thing is quantitative. The question is how much is not
good? You can play games and show that you will kill 10 million people in the
next 2000 years with it. If I were to walk in front of a car, hoping that I wi
ll have some more children in the future, I also will kill 10,000 people in th
e next 10,000 years, if you figure it out, from a certain way of calculating.
The question is how big is the effect? And the last time ... (I wish I had-I s
hould, of course, have checked these figures, but let me put it differently.)
The next time you hear a talk, ask the questions which I point out to you, bec
ause I asked some questions the last time I heard a talk, and I can remember t
he answers, but I haven't checked them very recently, so I don't have any figu
res, but I at least asked the question. How much is the increase in radioactiv
ity compared to the general variations in the amount of radioactivity from pla
ce to place? The amounts of background radioactivity in a wooden building and
a brick building are quite different, because the wood is less radioactive tha
n the bricks.
It turns out that at the time that I asked this question, the difference in th
e effects was less than the difference between being in a brick and a wooden b
uilding. And the difference between being at sea level and being at 5000 feet
altitude was a hundred times, at least, bigger than the extra radioactivity pr
oduced by the atomic bomb testing.
Now, I say that if a man is absolutely honest and wants to protect the populac
e from the effects of radioactivity, which is what our scientific friends ofte
n say they are trying to do, then he should work on the biggest number, not on
the smallest number, and he should try to point out that the radioactivity wh
ich is absorbed by living in the city of Denver is so much more serious, is a
hundred times bigger than the background from the bomb, that all the people of
Denver ought to move to lower altitudes. The situation really is-don't get fr
ightened if you live in Denver-it's small. It doesn't make much difference. It
's only a tiny effect. But the effect from the bombs is less than the differen
ce between being at low level and high level, I believe. I'm not absolutely su
re. I ask you to ask that question to get some idea whether you should be very
careful about not walking into a brick building, as careful as you are to try
to stop nuclear testing for the sole reason of radioactivity. There are many
good reasons that you may feel politically strong about, one way or the other.
But that's another question.
We are, in the scientific things, getting into situations in which we are rela
ted to the government, and we have all kinds of lack of honesty. Particularly,
lack of honesty is in the reporting and description of the adventures of goin
g to different planets and in the various space adventures. To take an example
, we can take the Mariner II voyage to Venus. A tremendously exciting thing, a
marvelous thing, that man has been able to send a thing 40 million miles, a p
iece of the earth at last to another place. And to get so close to it as to ge
t a view that corresponds to being 20,000 miles away. It's hard for me to expl
ain how exciting that is, and how interesting. And I've used up more time than
I ought.
The story of what happened during the trip was equally interesting and excitin
g. The apparent breakdown. The fact that they had to turn all the instruments
off for a while because they were losing power in the batteries and the whole
thing would stop. And then they were able to turn it on again. The fact of how
it was heating up. How one thing after the other didn't work and then began t
o work. All the accidents and the excitement of a new adventure. Just like sen
ding Columbus, or Magellan, around the world. There were mutinies, and there w
ere troubles and there were shipwrecks, and there was the whole works. And it'
s an exciting story. When it, for example, heated up, it was said in the paper
, "It's heating up, and we're learning from that." What could we be learning?
If you know something, you realize you can't learn anything. You put satellite
s up near the earth, and you know how much radiation you get from the sun . ..
we know that. And how much do they get when they get near Venus? Its a defini
tely accurate law, well known, inverse square. The closer you get, the brighte
r the light. Easy. So it's easy to figure out how much white and black to pain
t the thing so that the temperature adjusts itself.
The only thing we learned was that the fact that it got hot was not due to any
thing else than the fact that the thing was made in a very great hurry at the
last minute and some changes were made in the inside apparatus, so that there
was more power developed in the inside and it got hotter than it was designed
for. What we learned, therefore, was not scientific. But we learned to be a li
ttle bit careful about going in such a hurry on these things and keep changing
our minds at the last minute. By some miracle the thing almost worked when it
was there. It was meant to look at Venus by making a series of passes across
the planet, looking like a television screen, twenty-one passes across the pla
net. It made three. Good. It was a miracle. It was a great achievement. Columb
us said he was going for gold and spices. He got no gold and very little spice
s. But it was a very important and very exciting moment. Mariner was supposed
to go for big and important scientific information. It got none. I tell you it
got none. Well, I'll correct it in a minute. It got practically none. But it
was a terrific and exciting experience. And in the future more will come from
it. What it did find out, from looking at Venus, they say in the paper, was th
at the temperature was 800 degrees or something, under the surface of the clou
ds. That was already known. And it's being confirmed today, even now, by using
the telescope at Palomar and making measurements on Venus from the earth. How
clever. The same information could be gotten from looking from the Earth: I h
ave a friend who has information on this, and he has a beautiful map of Venus
in his room, with contour lines and hot and cold and different temperatures in
different parts. In detail. From the earth. Not just three swatches with some
spots of up and down. There was one piece of information that was obtained-th
at Venus has no magnetic field around it like the earth has-and that was a pie
ce of information that could not have been obtained from here.
There was also very interesting information on what was going on in the space
in between, on the way from here to Venus. It should be pointed out that if yo
u don't try to make the thing hit a planet, you don't have to put extra correc
ting devices inside, you know, with extra rockets to re-steer it. You just sho
ot it off. You can put more instruments in, better instruments, more carefully
designed, and if you really want to find out what there is in the space in be
tween, you don't have to make such a to-do about going to Venus. The most impo
rtant information was on the space in between, and if we want that information
, then please let us send another one that isn't necessary to go to a planet a
nd have all the complications of steering it.
Another thing is the Ranger program. I get sick when I read in the paper about
, one after the other, five of them that don't work. And each time we learn so
mething, and then we don't continue the program. We're learning an awful lot.
We're learning that somebody forgot to close a valve, that somebody let sand i
nto another part of the instrument. Sometimes we learn something, but most of
the time we learn only that there's something the matter with our industry, ou
r engineers and our scientists, that the failure of our program, to fail so ma
ny times, has no reasonable and simple explanation. It's not necessary that we
have so many failures, as far as I can tell. There's something the matter in
the organization, in the administration, in the engineering, or in the making
of these instruments. It's important to know that. It's not worthwhile knowing
that we're always learning something.
Incidentally, people ask me, why go to the moon? Because it's a great adventur
e in science. Incidentally, it also develops technology. You have to make all
these instruments to go to the moon-rockets, and so on-and it's very important
to develop technology. Also it makes scientists happy, and if scientists are
happy maybe they'll work on something else good for warfare. Another possibili
ty is a direct military use of space. I don't know how, nobody knows how, but
there may turn out to be a use. Anyway, it's possible that if we keep on devel
oping the military aspects of long-range flying to the moon that we'll prevent
the Russians from making some military use that we can't figure out yet. Also
there are indirect military advantages. That is, if you build bigger rockets,
then you can use them more directly by going directly from here to some other
part of the earth instead of having to go to the moon. Another good reason is
a propaganda reason. We've lost some face in front of the world by letting th
e other guys get ahead in technology. It's good to be able to try to get that
face back. None of these reasons alone is worthwhile and can explain our going
to the moon. I believe, however, that if you put them all together, plus all
the other reasons which I can't think of, it's worth it.
Well, I gotcha.
I would like to talk about one other thing, and that is, how do you get new id
eas? This is for amusement for the students here, mostly. How do you get new i
deas? That you do by analogy, mostly, and in working with analogy you often ma
ke very great errors. It's a great game to try to look at the past, at an unsc
ientific era, look at something there, and say have we got the same thing now,
and where is it? So I would like to amuse myself with this game. First, we ta
ke witch doctors. The witch doctor says he knows how to cure. There are spirit
s inside which are trying to get out. You have to blow them out with an egg, a
nd so on. Put a snakeskin on and take quinine from the bark of a tree. The qui
nine works. He doesn't know he's got the wrong theory of what happens. If I'm
in the tribe and I'm sick, I go to the witch doctor. He knows more about it th
an anyone else. But I keep trying to tell him he doesn't know what he's doing
and that someday when people investigate the thing freely and get free of all
his complicated ideas they'll learn much better ways of doing it. Who are the
witch doctors? Psychoanalysts and psychiatrists, of course. If you look at all
of the complicated ideas that they have developed in an infinitesimal amount
of time, if you compare to any other of the sciences how long it takes to get
one idea after the other, if you consider all the structures and inventions an
d complicated things, the ids and the egos, the tensions and the forces, and t
he pushes and the pulls, I tell you they can't all be there. It's too much for
one brain or a few brains to have cooked up in such a short time. However, I
remind you that if you're in the tribe, there's nobody else to go to.
And now I can have some more fun, and this is especially for the students of t
his university. I thought, among other people, of the Arabian scholars of scie
nce during the Middle Ages. They did a little bit of science themselves, yes,
but they wrote commentaries on the great men that came before them. They wrote
commentaries on commentaries. They described what each other wrote about each
other. They just kept writing these commentaries. Writing commentaries is som
e kind of a disease of the intellect. Tradition is very important. And freedom
of new ideas, new possibilities, are disregarded on the grounds that the way
it was is better than anything I can do. I have no right to change this or to
invent anything or to think of anything. Well, those are your English professo
rs. They are steeped in tradition, and they write commentaries. Of course, the
y also teach us, some of us, English. That's where the analogy breaks down.
Now if we continue in the analogy here, we see that if they had a more enlight
ened view of the world there would be a lot of interesting problems. Maybe, ho
w many parts of speech are there? Shall we invent another part of speech? Oooh
hhhh!
Well, then how about the vocabulary? Have we got too many words? No, no. We ne
ed them to express ideas. Have we got too few words? No. By some accident, of
course, through the history of time, we happened to have developed the perfect
combination of words.
Now let me get to a lower level still in this question. And that is, all the t
ime you hear the question, "why can't Johnny read?" And the answer is, because
of the spelling. The Phoenicians, 2000, more, 3000, 4000 years ago, somewhere
around there, were able to figure out from their language a scheme of describ
ing the sounds with symbols. It was very simple. Each sound had a correspondin
g symbol, and each symbol, a corresponding sound. So that when you could see w
hat the symbols' sounds were, you could see what the words were supposed to so
und like. It's a marvelous invention. And in the period of time things have ha
ppened, and things have gotten out of whack in the English language. Why can't
we change the spelling? Who should do it if not the professors of English? If
the professors of English will complain to me that the students who come to t
he universities, after all those years of study, still cannot spell "friend,"
I say to them that something's the matter with the way you spell friend.
And also, it can be argued, perhaps, if they wish, that it's a question of sty
le and beauty in the language, and that to make new words and new parts of spe
ech might destroy that. But they cannot argue that respelling the words would
have anything to do with the style. There's no form of art form or literary fo
rm, with the sole exception of crossword puzzles, in which the spelling makes
a bit of difference to the style. And even crossword puzzles can be made with
a different spelling. And if it's not the English professors that do it, and i
f we give them two years and nothing happens-and please don't invent three way
s of doing it, just one way, that everybody is used to-if we wait two or three
years and nothing happens, then we'll ask the philologists and the linguists
and so on because they know how to do it. Did you know that they can write any
language with an alphabet so that you can read how it sounds in another langu
age when you hear it? That's really something. So they ought to be able to do
it in English alone.
One thing else I would leave to them. This does show, of course, that there ar
e great dangers in arguing from analogy. And these dangers should be pointed o
ut. I don't have time to do that, and so I leave to your English professors th
e problem of pointing out the errors of reasoning by analogy.
Now there are a number of things, positive things, in which a scientific type
of reasoning works, and in which considerable progress has been made, and I've
been picking out a number of the negative things. I want you to know I apprec
iate positive things. (I also appreciate that I'm talking too long, so I will
mention them only. But it's out of proportion. I wanted to spend more time.) T
here are a number of things in which rational people work very hard using meth
ods which are quite sensible. And nobody's bothered with them, yet.
For instance, people have arranged traffic systems and arranged the way the tr
affic will work in other cities. Criminal detection is at a pretty high level
of knowing how to get evidence, how to judge evidence, how to control your emo
tions on the evidence, and so on.
We shouldn't only think of the technological inventions when we consider the p
rogress of man. There are an enormous number of most important non-technologic
al inventions which mustn't be disregarded. Economic inventions in checks, for
example, and banks, things of this nature. International financial arrangemen
ts, and so on, are marvelous inventions. And they are absolutely essential and
represent a great advance. Systems of accounting, for example. Business accou
nting is a scientific process-I mean, is not a scientific, maybe, but a ration
al process. A system of law has been gradually developed. There is a system of
laws and juries and judges. And although there are, of course, many faults an
d flaws, and we must continue to work on them, I have great admiration for tha
t. And also the development of government organizations which have been going
on through the years. There are a large number of problems which have been sol
ved in certain countries in ways that we sometimes can understand and sometime
s we cannot. I remind you of one, because it bothers me. And that has to do wi
th the fact that the government really has the problem of the control of the f
orces. And most of the time there has been trouble because the strongest force
s try to get control of the government. It is marvelous, is it not, that someo
ne with no force can control someone with force. And so the difficulties in th
e Roman empire, with the Praetorian guards, seemed insoluble, because they had
more force than the Senate. Yet in our country we have a sort of discipline o
f the military, so that they never try to control the Senate directly. People
laugh at the brass. They tease them all the time. No matter how many things we
've stuffed down their throats, we civilians have still been able to control t
he military! I think that the military's discipline in knowing what its place
is in the government of the United States is one of our great heritages and on
e of the very valuable things, and I don't think that we should keep pushing o
n them so hard until they get impatient and break out from their self-imposed
discipline. Don't misunderstand me. The military has a large number of faults,
like anything else. And the way they handled Mr. Anderson, I believe his name
was, the fellow who was supposed to have murdered somebody and so on, is an e
xample of what would happen if they did take over.
Now, if I look to the future, I should talk about the future development of me
chanics, the possibilities that will arise because we have almost free energy
when we get to controlled fusion. And in the near future the developments in b
iology will make problems like no one has ever seen before. The very rapid dev
elopments of biology are going to cause all kinds of very exciting problems. I
haven't time to describe them, so I just refer you to Aldous Huxley's book Br
ave New World, which gives some indication of the type of problem that future
biology will involve itself in.
One thing about the future I look to with favor. I think there are a lot of th
ings working in the right direction. In the first place, the fact that there a
re so many nations and they hear each other, on account of the communications,
even if they try to close their ears. And so there are all kinds of opinions
running around, and the net result is that it's hard to keep ideas out. And so
me of the troubles that the Russians are having in holding down people like Mr
. Nakhrosov are a kind of trouble that I hope will continue to develop.
One other point that I would like to take a moment or two to make a little bit
more in detail is this one: The problem of moral values and ethical judgments
is one into which science cannot enter, as I have already indicated, and whic
h I don't know of any particular way to word. However, I see one possibility.
There may be others, but I see one possibility. You see we need some kind of a
mechanism, something like the trick we have to make an observation and believ
e it, a scheme for choosing moral values. Now in the days of Galileo there wer
e great arguments about what makes a body fall, all kinds of arguments about t
he medium and the pushes and the pulls and so on. And what Galileo did was dis
regard all the arguments and decide if it fell and how fast it fell, and just
describe that. On that everybody could agree. And keep on studying in that dir
ection, on what everyone can agree, and never mind the machinery and the theor
y underneath, as long as possible. And then gradually, with the accumulation o
f experience, you find other theories underneath that are more satisfactory, p
erhaps. There were in the early days of science terrible arguments about, for
instance, light. Newton did some experiments which showed that a light beam se
parated and spread with a prism would never get separated again. Why did he ha
ve to argue with Hooke? He had to argue with Hooke because of the theories of
the day about what light was like and so on. He wasn't arguing whether the phe
nomenon was right. Hooke took a prism and saw that it was true.
So the question is whether it is possible to do something analogous (and work
by analogy) with moral problems. I believe that it is not at all impossible th
at there be agreements on consequences, that we agree on the net result, but m
aybe not on the reason we do what we ought to do. That the argument that exist
ed in the early days of the Christians as to, for instance, whether Jesus was
of a substance like the Father or of the same substance as the Father, which w
hen translated into the Greek became the argument between the Homoiousions and
the Homoousians. Laugh, but people were hurt by that. Reputations were destro
yed, people were killed, arguing whether it's the same or similar. And today w
e should learn that lesson and not have an argument as to the reason why we ag
ree if we agree.
I therefore consider the Encyclical of Pope John XXIII, which I have read, to
be one of the most remarkable occurrences of our time and a great step to the
future. I can find no better expression of my beliefs of morality, of the duti
es and responsibilities of mankind, people to other people, than is in that en
cyclical. I do not agree with some of the machinery which supports some of the
ideas, that they spring from God, perhaps, I don't personally believe, or tha
t some of these ideas are the natural consequence of ideas of earlier popes, i
n a natural and perfectly sensible way. I don't agree, and I will not ridicule
it, and I won't argue it. I agree with the responsibilities and with the duti
es that the Pope represents as the responsibilities and the duties of people.
And I recognize this encyclical as the beginning, possibly, of a new future wh
ere we forget, perhaps, about the theories of why we believe things as long as
we ultimately in the end, as far as action is concerned, believe the same thi
ng.
Thank you very much. I enjoyed myself.
【三思言论集】→【三思藏书架】→《费恩曼演讲录》 〖本书由柯
南
扫校〗
第二讲 价值的不确定性
我们认为,人类在认识世界和改造世界方面似乎具有巨大的
潜力。但是,当我们将已经取得的有限成就与这种潜力相对照时,
我们会觉得惭愧。一次又一次人们认为能够做得比现在更好。过
去,古人们在可怕的现实面前梦想着美好的未来;现在,尽管我
们拥有了他们所梦想的未来,甚至在许多方面我们已经超越了他
们所梦想的,但是,我们也同样有我们的未来梦想。今天的人们
对未来的期望与先辈们过去曾有的对未来的憧憬在程度上几乎是
一样的。有时,人们认为人类具有的潜力得不到发挥是因为人的
愚昧和无知,并认为发展教育是解决这个问题的办法。甚至,人
们认为如果所有的人都受到了良好的教育,我们或许都会成为伏
尔泰。但是,事实证明虚伪和罪恶与诚实和善良一样容易学。虽
然,教育是一种巨大的力量,但是它也能以人们不希望的方式发
挥作用。人们常说,国家之间的交流增进了相互间的理解,进而
促进了人类潜能的发挥。但是,交流的渠道既可以畅通无阻,也
可能被关闭;交流的内容既可以是真理,也可以是谎言;交流既
可以被用来进行政治意识形态方面的宣传,也可以被用作相互提
供真实的和有价值的信息。交流、传播是一种强大的力量,但是,
它可能起到积极的作用,也可能起到消极的作用。关于科学对社
会的积极作用,这方面的例子不胜枚举,例如在医学领域取得的
许多进展。但是,另一方面,有些科学家正在实验室里秘密地培
养着连他们都得小心翼翼地进行控制的病菌。
人人都厌恶战争。今天我们的梦想就是实现和平。如果没有
军备竞赛和军事扩张,我们可以做自己想做的任何事情。但是,
和平的力量既可以促使人们做善事,也可以促使人们做恶事。也
许你们会问,和平的力量怎么使人们做恶事?我也不知道。如果
我们曾经有过和平,也许我们能够理解这一点。我们今天有比古
人更多的这类力量来控制战争的发生。或许我们正在做的比大多
数古代人做的要好一点。但是,与我们所取得的有限成就相比,
我们似乎应该做的要更多。这是为什么?为什么我们不能战胜自
己。因为我们发现,即使最伟大的力量和能力,似乎也没有明确
地告诉我们应该怎样使用它们。举例来说,关于物理世界的行为
表现,我们积累了大量的理论和观点,这些理论和观点只是使我
们相信物理世界的表现是无目的的。所以,科学并不直接地教导
人们善与恶。
综观历史,人类不断地试图探索生命的意义。他们认识到如
果赋予整个人类某种发展方向,人类具有的巨大潜力将能释放出
来。所以,关于生命的意义问题有许许多多的答案。但是,它们
都分别属于不同的类型。由于对不同观念的仇视和恐惧,一类观
念的支持者们往往以极端仇视和恐惧的态度看待信奉另一类观念
的人们,人类具有的巨大潜能就被误导和限制。事实上,正是从
那些由错误的信念而导致的畸形历史的大量事实中,哲学家认识
到了人类的巨大潜力和潜能。
我们的梦想就是要找到不同的国家和民族之间的交流渠道。
那么,开放的渠道意味着什么呢?如果我们将所有的因素都考虑
进去,不仅包括古人知道的,而且还包括至今为止我们已经发现
的而古人不知道的,那么,我认为我们必须坦率地承认有些东西
我们也不知道。并且,我认为,承认了这一点,我们或许就找到
了这个沟通不同民族的开放渠道。
承认我们对有些东西的无知,并且一直保持这样的态度:为
了我们最终找到解决问题的方法,承认我们并没有确切地知道人
类社会发展的必然方向,允许另外可能的发展道路存在,允许采
用其他的思维方式,注意新出现的理论、观点和新的发现。即使
在我们不知道我们要做什么时,也应当如此。
前面我已经说过,这里我再强调一下:承认我们的无知和不
确定性,是为了避免再犯过去所犯的错误,使人类在某个方向上
继续发展、不受限制、不受阻碍的唯一希望。我承认,我们不知
道生命的意义是什么,不知道什么是正确的道德价值等等。
我认为必须对科学与宗教之间的关系进行坦率彻底地讨论,
仅仅通过三次演讲是不能充分说明科学思想对其他领域中思想的
影响的。不知道为什么,我甚至在开始进行这方面讨论的时候就
不得不请求你们原谅。所以,我不再继续重复有关请求大家原谅
的话。不管怎么说,我想从科学与宗教之间的冲突谈起。我或多
或少地描述了我指的科学是什么含义,我也必须告诉大家我所说
的宗教是指什么。因为不同的人们有不同的理解,这个问题非常
难以回答。在这里我要谈论的宗教是指在每一天的日常生活中有
关去教堂的这类事情,而不是宗教中优雅的神学理论;仅仅是指
普通人相信的那种,或多或少是传统意义上的,是关于人们的宗
教生活方面。
我的确认为在科学与宗教之间存在着冲突,这或多或少是由
干定义宗教的方式不同而产生的。为了便于讨论,我们以比较明
确的方式把这个问题提出来,而不是试图进行非常困难的神学研
究,我提出一个时常发生在我们身边的问题。
假设一位出身于宗教信仰家庭的年轻小伙子去上大学,他学
习自然科学。很自然,作为对他从事科学学习的一种推测,他会
开始提出疑问:在他的学习中信仰是否是必要的。所以,最初他
开始怀疑,后来或许开始不相信他父亲所信仰的上帝。这里我所
说的“上帝”是指个人信仰的上帝。这种现象经常发生,它不是
一个孤立的或虚构的例子。事实上,尽管我没有直接地进行统计,
我坚信半数以上的科学家不相信他们的父亲信仰的上帝,或者不
相信传统意义上的上帝。大多数科学家不相信它。为什么会这样?
到底发生了什么事?通过回答这个问题,我认为我们将会非常明
确地说明科学与宗教的关系。
那么,为什么会这样呢?有三种可能性。第一种可能性是,
这位年轻人师从于科学家,并且我已经指出,这些科学家大多是
无神论者,所以一些无神论的“邪恶”思想不断地从教师扩散到
学生身上。……哦!谢谢你们的笑声。如果你持有这种观点,我
坚信这表明了你们对科学的了解要比我对宗教的了解还要少。
第二种可能性暗示只有一星半点的知识是危险的。因为很可
能这个年轻人只学到了一点科学知识就认为他懂得了科学的全部。
这个例子还暗示等他变得成熟之后,他将对所有的这些事情的理
解会更深刻。但是,我不认为是这样,我认为有许多成年的科学
家,或那些他们自认为自己成熟,但不信仰上帝的人们。事实上,
我认为答案恰恰相反,这个年轻人根本不是全部理解了科学,而
是他突然意识到他对科学一点也不了解。
产生这种现象的第三种可能的解释是,或许这个年轻人没有
正确地理解科学,科学不能证伪上帝。我赞成科学不能证伪上帝
存在的观点,并且我认识许多信仰上帝的科学家。我从事科学研
究的目的也不是要证伪所有的东西。或许也有许多科学家信仰传
统意义上的上帝
--
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