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发信人: lyfe (修身养性), 信区: HITSY
标 题: Clone For Medicine
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2002年03月18日10:07:19 星期一), 站内信件
Now that genetically modified and copied
mammals are a reality, biomedical researchers
are starting to develop imaginative ways
to use this technology.
---by Ian Wilmut
In the summer of 1995 the birth of two lambs at my
institution, the Roslin Institute near Edinburgh in
Midlothian, Scotland, heralded what many scientists
believe will be a period of revolutionary opportunities
in biology and medicine. Megan and Morag, both carried
to term by a surrogate mother, were not produced from
the union of a sperm and an egg. Rather their genetic
material came from cultured cells originally derived
from a nine-day-old embryo. That made Megan and Morag
genetic copies, or clones, of the embryo.
Before the arrival of the lambs, researchers had already
learned how to produce sheep, cattle and other animals
by genetically copying cells painstakingly isolated from
early-stage embryos. Our work promised to make cloning
vastly more practical, because cultured cells are relatively
easy to work with. Megan and Morag proved that even though
such cells are partially specialized, or differentiated,
they can be genetically reprogrammed to function like
those in an early embryo. Most biologists had believed
that this would be impossible.
We went on to clone animals from cultured cells taken from
a 26-day-old fetus and from a mature ewe. The ewe's cells
gave rise to Dolly, the first mammal to be cloned from an
adult. Our announcement of Dolly's birth in February 1997
attracted enormous press interest, perhaps because Dolly
drew attention to the theoretical possibility of cloning
humans. This is an outcome I hope never comes to pass. But
the ability to make clones from cultured cells derived from
easily obtained tissue should bring numerous practical
benefits in animal husbandry and medical science, as well
as answer critical biological questions.
How to Clone
Cloning is based on nuclear transfer, the same technique
scientists have used for some years to copy animals from
embryonic cells. Nuclear transfer involves the use of two
cells. The recipient cell is normally an unfertilized egg
taken from an animal soon after ovulation. Such eggs are
poised to begin developing once they are appropriately
stimulated. The donor cell is the one to be copied. A
researcher working under a high-power microscope holds the
recipient egg cell by suction on the end of a fine pipette
and uses an extremely fine micropipette to suck out the
chromosomes, sausage-shaped bodies that incorporate the
cell's DNA. (At this stage, chromosomes are not enclosed
in a distinct nucleus.) Then, typically, the donor cell,
complete with its nucleus, is fused with the recipient egg.
Some fused cells start to develop like a normal embryo
and produce offspring if implanted into the uterus of a
surrogate mother [see illustration].
In our experiments with cultured cells, we took special
measures to make the donor and recipient cells compatible.
In particular, we tried to coordinate the cycles of
duplication of DNA and those of the production of messenger
RNA, a molecule that is copied from DNA and guides the
manufacture of proteins. We chose to use donor cells whose
DNA was not being duplicated at the time of the transfer
[see box]. To arrange this, we worked with cells that we
forced to become quiescent by reducing the concentration
of nutrients in their culture medium. In addition, we
delivered pulses of electric current to the egg after the
transfer, to encourage the cells to fuse and to mimic
the stimulation normally provided by a sperm.
After the birth of Megan and Morag demonstrated that we
could produce viable offspring from embryo-derived
cultures, we filed for patents and started experiments
to see whether offspring could be produced from more
completely differentiated cultured cells. Working in
collaboration with PPL Therapeutics, also near Edinburgh,
we tested fetal fibroblasts (common cells found in
connective tissue) and cells taken from the udder of a
ewe that was three and a half months pregnant. We selected
a pregnant adult because mammary cells grow vigorously
at this stage of pregnancy, indicating that they might do
well in culture. Moreover, they have stable chromosomes,
suggesting that they retain all their genetic information.
The successful cloning of Dolly from the mammary-derived
culture and of other lambs from the cultured fibroblasts
showed that the Roslin protocol was robust and repeatable.
All the cloned offspring in our experiments looked, as
expected, like the breed of sheep that donated the
originating nucleus, rather than like their surrogate
mothers or the egg donors. Genetic tests prove beyond
doubt that Dolly is indeed a clone of an adult. It is
most likely that she was derived from a fully differentiated
mammary cell, although it is impossible to be certain
because the culture also contained some less differentiated
cells found in small numbers in the mammary gland. Other
laboratories have since used an essentially similar
technique to create healthy clones of cattle and mice from
cultured cells, including ones from nonpregnant animals.
Although cloning by nuclear transfer is repeatable, it has
limitations. Some cloned cattle and sheep are unusually
large, but this effect has also been seen when embryos are
simply cultured before gestation. Perhaps more important,
nuclear transfer is not yet efficient. John B. Gurdon, now
at the University of Cambridge, found in nuclear-transfer
experiments with frogs almost 30 years ago that the number
of embryos surviving to become tadpoles was smaller when
donor cells were taken from animals at a more advanced
developmental stage. Our first results with mammals showed
a similar pattern. All the cloning studies described so
far show a consistent pattern of deaths during embryonic
and fetal development, with laboratories reporting only
1 to 2 percent of embryos surviving to become live offspring.
Sadly, even some clones that survive through birth die
shortly afterward.
Clones with a Difference
The cause of these losses remains unknown, but it may reflect
the complexity of the genetic reprogramming needed if a
healthy offspring is to be born. If even one gene
inappropriately expresses or fails to express a crucial
protein at a sensitive point, the result might be fatal.
Yet reprogramming might involve regulating thousands of
genes in a process that could involve some randomness.
Technical improvements, such as the use of different donor
cells, might reduce the toll.
The ability to produce offspring from cultured cells opens
up relatively easy ways to make genetically modified, or
transgenic, animals. Such animals are important for research
and can produce medically valuable human proteins.
The standard technique for making transgenic animals is
painfully slow and inefficient. It entails microinjecting
a genetic construct--a DNA sequence incorporating a desired
gene--into a large number of fertilized eggs. A few of them
take up the introduced DNA so that the resulting offspring
express it. These animals are then bred to pass on the
construct [see "Transgenic Livestock as Drug Factories,
" by William H. Velander, Henryk Lubon and William N. Drohan;
Scientific American, January 1997].
In contrast, a simple chemical treatment can persuade
cultured cells to take up a DNA construct. If these cells
are then used as donors for nuclear transfer, the resulting
cloned offspring will all carry the construct. The Roslin
Institute and PPL Therapeutics have already used this
approach to produce transgenic animals more efficiently
than is possible with microinjection [see illustration].
IX, a blood-clotting protein used to treat hemophilia B.
In this experiment we transferred an antibiotic-resistance
gene to the donor cells along with the factor IX gene,
so that by adding a toxic dose of the antibiotic neomycin
to the culture, we could kill cells that had failed to take
up the added DNA. Yet despite this genetic disruption, the
proportion of embryos that developed to term after nuclear
transfer was in line with our previous results.
The first transgenic sheep produced this way, Polly, was
born in the summer of 1997. Polly and other transgenic
clones secrete the human protein in their milk. These
observations suggest that once techniques for the retrieval
of egg cells in different species have been perfected,
cloning will make it possible to introduce precise genetic
changes into any mammal and to create multiple individuals
bearing the alteration.
Cultures of mammary gland cells might have a particular
advantage as donor material. Until recently, the only
practical way to assess whether a DNA construct would cause
a protein to be secreted in milk was to transfer it into
female mice, then test their milk. It should be possible,
however, to test mammary cells in culture directly. That
will speed up the process of finding good constructs and
cells that have incorporated them so as to give efficient
secretion of the protein.
Cloning offers many other possibilities. One is the
generation of genetically modified animal organs that
are suitable for transplantation into humans. At present,
thousands of patients die every year before a replacement
heart, liver or kidney becomes available. A normal pig
organ would be rapidly destroyed by a "hyperacute" immune
reaction if transplanted into a human. This reaction is
triggered by proteins on the pig cells that have been
modified by an enzyme called alpha-galactosyl transferase.
It stands to reason, then, that an organ from a pig that
has been genetically altered so that it lacks this enzyme
might be well tolerated if doctors gave the recipient
drugs to suppress other, less extreme immune reactions.
Another promising area is the rapid production of large
animals carrying genetic defects that mimic human illnesses,
such as cystic fibrosis. Although mice have provided some
information, mice and humans have very different genes for
cystic fibrosis. Sheep are expected to be more valuable
for research into this condition, because their lungs
resemble those of humans. Moreover, because sheep live
for years, scientists can evaluate their long-term responses
to treatments.
Creating animals with genetic defects raises challenging
ethical questions. But it seems clear that society does
in the main support research on animals, provided that
the illnesses being studied are serious ones and that
efforts are made to avoid unnecessary suffering.
The power to make animals with a precisely engineered
genetic constitution could also be employed more directly
in cell-based therapies for important illnesses, including
Parkinson's disease, diabetes and muscular dystrophy.
None of these conditions currently has any fully effective
treatment. In each, some pathological process damages
specific cell populations, which are unable to repair or
replace themselves. Several novel approaches are now being
explored that would provide new cells--ones taken from the
patient and cultured, donated by other humans or taken
from animals.
To be useful, transferred cells must be incapable of
transmitting new disease and must match the patient's
physiological need closely. Any immune response they
produce must be manageable. Cloned animals with precise
genetic modifications that minimize the human immune
response might constitute a plentiful supply of suitable
cells. Animals might even produce cells with special
properties, although any modifications would risk a
stronger immune reaction.
Cloning could also be a way to produce herds of cattle
that lack the prion protein gene. This gene makes cattle
susceptible to infection with prions, agents that cause
bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE), or mad cow disease.
Because many medicines contain gelatin or other products
derived from cattle, health officials are concerned that
prions from infected animals could infect patients.
Cloning could create herds that, lacking the prion protein
gene, would be a source of ingredients for certifiable
prion-free medicines.
The technique might in addition curtail the transmission
of genetic disease. Many scientists are now working on
therapies that would supplement or replace defective genes
in cells, but even successfully treated patients will still
pass on defective genes to their offspring. If a couple
was willing to produce an embryo that could be treated by
advanced forms of gene therapy, nuclei from modified
embryonic cells could be transferred to eggs to create
children who would be entirely free of a given disease.
Some of the most ambitious medical projects now being
considered envision the production of universal human donor
cells. Scientists know how to isolate from very early
mouse embryos undifferentiated stem cells, which can
contribute to all the different tissues of the adult.
Equivalent cells can be obtained for some other species,
and humans are probably no exception. Scientists are
learning how to differentiate stem cells in culture,
so it may be possible to manufacture cells to repair or
replace tissue damaged by illness.
Making Human Stem Cells
Stem cells matched to an individual patient could be made
by creating an embryo by nuclear transfer just for that
purpose, using one of the patient's cells as the donor
and a human egg as the recipient. The embryo would be
allowed to develop only to the stage needed to separate
and culture stem cells from it. At that point, an embryo
has only a few hundred cells, and they have not started
to differentiate. In particular, the nervous system has not
begun to develop, so the embryo has no means of feeling
pain or sensing the environment. Embryo-derived cells might
be used to treat a variety of serious diseases caused by
damage to cells, perhaps including AIDS as well as
Parkinson's, muscular dystrophy and diabetes.
Scenarios that involve growing human embryos for their
cells are deeply disturbing to some people, because
embryos have the potential to become people. The views
of those who consider life sacred from conception should
be respected, but I suggest a contrasting view. The embryo
is a cluster of cells that does not become a sentient
being until much later in development, so it is not yet
a person. In the U.K., the Human Genetics Advisory
Commission has initiated a major public consultation
to assess attitudes toward this use of cloning.
Creating an embryo to treat a specific patient is likely to
be an expensive proposition, so it might be more practical
to establish permanent, stable human embryonic stem-cell
lines from cloned embryos. Cells could then be
differentiated as needed. Implanted cells derived this
way would not be genetically perfect matches, but the
immune reaction would probably be controllable. In the
longer term, scientists might be able to develop methods
for manufacturing genetically matched stem cells for a
patient by "dedifferentiating" them directly, without
having to utilize an embryo to do it.
No to Cloned People
Several commentators and scientists have suggested that
it might in some cases be ethically acceptable to clone
existing people. One scenario envisages generating a
replacement for a dying relative. All such possibilities,
however, raise the concern that the clone would be
treated as less than a complete individual, because he or
she would likely be subjected to limitations and
expectations based on the family's knowledge of the genetic
"twin." Those expectations might be false, because human
personality is only partly determined by genes. The clone
of an extrovert could have a quite different demeanor.
Clones of athletes, movie stars, entrepreneurs or
scientists might well choose different careers because
of chance events in early life.
Some pontificators have also put forward the notion that
couples in which one member is infertile might choose to
make a copy of one or the other partner. But society ought
to be concerned that a couple might not treat naturally a
child who is a copy of just one of them. Because other
methods are available for the treatment of all known types
of infertility, conventional therapeutic avenues seem more
appropriate. None of the suggested uses of cloning for
making copies of existing people is ethically acceptable
to my way of thinking, because they are not in the
interests of the resulting child. It should go without
saying that I strongly oppose allowing cloned human
embryos to develop so that they can be tissue donors.
It nonetheless seems clear that cloning from cultured
cells will offer important medical opportunities.
Predictions about new technologies are often wrong:
societal attitudes change; unexpected developments occur.
Time will tell. But biomedical researchers probing the
potential of cloning now have a full agenda.
--
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