Algorithm 版 (精华区)
发信人: ssos (存在与虚无·戒酒戒网), 信区: Algorithm
标 题: as we may think
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年10月31日21:18:51 星期三), 站内信件
As Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Dr. Vanne
var Bush has coordinated the activities of some six thousand leading America
n scientists in the application of science to warfare. In this significant a
rticle he holds up an incentive for scientists when the fighting has ceased.
He urges that men of science should then turn to the massive task of making
more accessible our bewildering store of knowledge. For years inventions ha
ve extended man's physical powers rather than the powers of his mind. Trip h
ammers that multiply the fists, microscopes that sharpen the eye, and engine
s of destruction and detection are new results, but not the end results, of
modern science. Now, says Dr. Bush, instruments are at hand which, if proper
ly developed, will give man access to and command over the inherited knowled
ge of the ages. The perfection of these pacific instruments should be the fi
rst objective of our scientists as they emerge from their war work. Like Eme
rson's famous address of 1837 on "The American Scholar," this paper by Dr. B
ush calls for a new relationship between thinking man and the sum of our kno
wledge. --THE EDITOR
This has not been a scientist's war; it has been a war in which all have had
a part. The scientists, burying their old professional competition in the d
emand of a common cause, have shared greatly and learned much. It has been e
xhilarating to work in effective partnership. Now, for many, this appears to
be approaching an end. What are the scientists to do next?
Return to "Flashback: Prophets of the Computer Age"
For the biologists, and particularly for the medical scientists, there can
be little indecision, for their war has hardly required them to leave the ol
d paths. Many indeed have been able to carry on their war research in their
familiar peacetime laboratories. Their objectives remain much the same.
It is the physicists who have been thrown most violently off stride, who hav
e left academic pursuits for the making of strange destructive gadgets, who
have had to devise new methods for their unanticipated assignments. They hav
e done their part on the devices that made it possible to turn back the enem
y, have worked in combined effort with the physicists of our allies. They ha
ve felt within themselves the stir of achievement. They have been part of a
great team. Now, as peace approaches, one asks where they will find objectiv
es worthy of their best.
1
Of what lasting benefit has been man's use of science and of the new instrum
ents which his research brought into existence? First, they have increased h
is control of his material environment. They have improved his food, his clo
thing, his shelter; they have increased his security and released him partly
from the bondage of bare existence. They have given him increased knowledge
of his own biological processes so that he has had a progressive freedom fr
om disease and an increased span of life. They are illuminating the interact
ions of his physiological and psychological functions, giving the promise of
an improved mental health.
Science has provided the swiftest communication between individuals; it has
provided a record of ideas and has enabled man to manipulate and to make ext
racts from that record so that knowledge evolves and endures throughout the
life of a race rather than that of an individual.
There is a growing mountain of research. But there is increased evidence tha
t we are being bogged down today as specialization extends. The investigator
is staggered by the findings and conclusions of thousands of other workers
-- conclusions which he cannot find time to grasp, much less to remember, as
they appear. Yet specialization becomes increasingly necessary for progress
, and the effort to bridge between disciplines is correspondingly superficia
l.
Professionally our methods of transmitting and reviewing the results of rese
arch are generations old and by now are totally inadequate for their purpose
. If the aggregate time spent in writing scholarly works and in reading them
could be evaluated, the ratio between these amounts of time might well be s
tartling. Those who conscientiously attempt to keep abreast of current thoug
ht, even in restricted fields, by close and continuous reading might well sh
y away from an examination calculated to show how much of the previous month
's efforts could be produced on call. Mendel's concept of the laws of geneti
cs was lost to the world for a generation because his publication did not re
ach the few who were capable of grasping and extending it; and this sort of
catastrophe is undoubtedly being repeated all about us, as truly significant
attainments become lost in the mass of the inconsequential.
The difficulty seems to be, not so much that we publish unduly in view of th
e extent and variety of present day interests, but rather that publication h
as been extended far beyond our present ability to make real use of the reco
rd. The summation of human experience is being expanded at a prodigious rate
, and the means we use for threading through the consequent maze to the mome
ntarily important item is the same as was used in the days of square-rigged
ships.
But there are signs of a change as new and powerful instrumentalities come i
nto use. Photocells capable of seeing things in a physical sense, advanced p
hotography which can record what is seen or even what is not, thermionic tub
es capable of controlling potent forces under the guidance of less power tha
n a mosquito uses to vibrate his wings, cathode ray tubes rendering visible
an occurrence so brief that by comparison a microsecond is a long time, rela
y combinations which will carry out involved sequences of movements more rel
iably than any human operator and thousands of times as fast -- there are pl
enty of mechanical aids with which to effect a transformation in scientific
records.
Two centuries ago Leibnitz invented a calculating machine which embodied mos
t of the essential features of recent keyboard devices, but it could not the
n come into use. The economics of the situation were against it: the labor i
nvolved in constructing it, before the days of mass production, exceeded the
labor to be saved by its use, since all it could accomplish could be duplic
ated by sufficient use of pencil and paper. Moreover, it would have been sub
ject to frequent breakdown, so that it could not have been depended upon; fo
r at that time and long after, complexity and unreliability were synonymous.
Babbage, even with remarkably generous support for his time, could not produ
ce his great arithmetical machine. His idea was sound enough, but constructi
on and maintenance costs were then too heavy. Had a Pharaoh been given detai
led and explicit designs of an automobile, and had he understood them comple
tely, it would have taxed the resources of his kingdom to have fashioned the
thousands of parts for a single car, and that car would have broken down on
the first trip to Giza.
Machines with interchangeable parts can now be constructed with great econom
y of effort. In spite of much complexity, they perform reliably. Witness the
humble typewriter, or the movie camera, or the automobile. Electrical conta
cts have ceased to stick when thoroughly understood. Note the automatic tele
phone exchange, which has hundreds of thousands of such contacts, and yet is
reliable. A spider web of metal, sealed in a thin glass container, a wire h
eated to brilliant glow, in short, the thermionic tube of radio sets, is mad
e by the hundred million, tossed about in packages, plugged into sockets --
and it works! Its gossamer parts, the precise location and alignment involve
d in its construction, would have occupied a master craftsman of the guild f
or months; now it is built for thirty cents. The world has arrived at an age
of cheap complex devices of great reliability; and something is bound to co
me of it.
2
A record if it is to be useful to science, must be continuously extended, it
must be stored, and above all it must be consulted. Today we make the recor
d conventionally by writing and photography, followed by printing; but we al
so record on film, on wax disks, and on magnetic wires. Even if utterly new
recording procedures do not appear, these present ones are certainly in the
process of modification and extension.
Certainly progress in photography is not going to stop. Faster material and
lenses, more automatic cameras, finer-grained sensitive compounds to allow a
n extension of the minicamera idea, are all imminent. Let us project this tr
end ahead to a logical, if not inevitable, outcome. The camera hound of the
future wears on his forehead a lump a little larger than a walnut. It takes
pictures 3 millimeters square, later to be projected or enlarged, which afte
r all involves only a factor of 10 beyond present practice. The lens is of u
niversal focus, down to any distance accommodated by the unaided eye, simply
because it is of short focal length. There is a built-in photocell on the w
alnut such as we now have on at least one camera, which automatically adjust
s exposure for a wide range of illumination. There is film in the walnut for
a hundred exposures, and the spring for operating its shutter and shifting
its film is wound once for all when the film clip is inserted. It produces i
ts result in full color. It may well be stereoscopic, and record with two sp
aced glass eyes, for striking improvements in stereoscopic technique are jus
t around the corner.
The cord which trips its shutter may reach down a man's sleeve within easy r
each of his fingers. A quick squeeze, and the picture is taken. On a pair of
ordinary glasses is a square of fine lines near the top of one lens, where
it is out of the way of ordinary vision. When an object appears in that squa
re, it is lined up for its picture. As the scientist of the future moves abo
ut the laboratory or the field, every time he looks at something worthy of t
he record, he trips the shutter and in it goes, without even an audible clic
k. Is this all fantastic? The only fantastic thing about it is the idea of m
aking as many pictures as would result from its use.
Will there be dry photography? It is already here in two forms. When Brady m
ade his Civil War pictures, the plate had to be wet at the time of exposure.
Now it has to be wet during development instead. In the future perhaps it n
eed not be wetted at all. There have long been films impregnated with diazo
dyes which form a picture without development, so that it is already there a
s soon as the camera has been operated. An exposure to ammonia gas destroys
the unexposed dye, and the picture can then be taken out into the light and
examined. The process is now slow, but someone may speed it up, and it has n
o grain difficulties such as now keep photographic researchers busy. Often i
t would be advantageous to be able to snap the camera and to look at the pic
ture immediately.
Another process now in use is also slow, and more or less clumsy. For fifty
years impregnated papers have been used which turn dark at every point where
an electrical contact touches them, by reason of the chemical change thus p
roduced in an iodine compound included in the paper. They have been used to
make records, for a pointer moving across them can leave a trail behind. If
the electrical potential on the pointer is varied as it moves, the line beco
mes light or dark in accordance with the potential.
This scheme is now used in facsimile transmission. The pointer draws a set o
f closely spaced lines across the paper one after another. As it moves, its
potential is varied in accordance with a varying current received over wires
from a distant station, where these variations are produced by a photocell
which is similarly scanning a picture. At every instant the darkness of the
line being drawn is made equal to the darkness of the point on the picture b
eing observed by the photocell. Thus, when the whole picture has been covere
d, a replica appears at the receiving end.
A scene itself can be just as well looked over line by line by the photocell
in this way as can a photograph of the scene. This whole apparatus constitu
tes a camera, with the added feature, which can be dispensed with if desired
, of making its picture at a distance. It is slow, and the picture is poor i
n detail. Still, it does give another process of dry photography, in which t
he picture is finished as soon as it is taken.
It would be a brave man who would predict that such a process will always re
main clumsy, slow, and faulty in detail. Television equipment today transmit
s sixteen reasonably good pictures a second, and it involves only two essent
ial differences from the process described above. For one, the record is mad
e by a moving beam of electrons rather than a moving pointer, for the reason
that an electron beam can sweep across the picture very rapidly indeed. The
other difference involves merely the use of a screen which glows momentaril
y when the electrons hit, rather than a chemically treated paper or film whi
ch is permanently altered. This speed is necessary in television, for motion
pictures rather than stills are the object.
Use chemically treated film in place of the glowing screen, allow the appara
tus to transmit one picture only rather than a succession, and a rapid camer
a for dry photography results. The treated film needs to be far faster in ac
tion than present examples, but it probably could be. More serious is the ob
jection that this scheme would involve putting the film inside a vacuum cham
ber, for electron beams behave normally only in such a rarefied environment.
This difficulty could be avoided by allowing the electron beam to play on o
ne side of a partition, and by pressing the film against the other side, if
this partition were such as to allow the electrons to go through perpendicul
ar to its surface, and to prevent them from spreading out sideways. Such par
titions, in crude form, could certainly be constructed, and they will hardly
hold up the general development.
Like dry photography, microphotography still has a long way to go. The basic
scheme of reducing the size of the record, and examining it by projection r
ather than directly, has possibilities too great to be ignored. The combinat
ion of optical projection and photographic reduction is already producing so
me results in microfilm for scholarly purposes, and the potentialities are h
ighly suggestive. Today, with microfilm, reductions by a linear factor of 20
can be employed and still produce full clarity when the material is re-enla
rged for examination. The limits are set by the graininess of the film, the
excellence of the optical system, and the efficiency of the light sources em
ployed. All of these are rapidly improving.
Assume a linear ratio of 100 for future use. Consider film of the same thick
ness as paper, although thinner film will certainly be usable. Even under th
ese conditions there would be a total factor of 10,000 between the bulk of t
he ordinary record on books, and its microfilm replica. The Encyclopoedia Br
itannica could be reduced to the volume of a matchbox. A library of a millio
n volumes could be compressed into one end of a desk. If the human race has
produced since the invention of movable type a total record, in the form of
magazines, newspapers, books, tracts, advertising blurbs, correspondence, ha
ving a volume corresponding to a billion books, the whole affair, assembled
and compressed, could be lugged off in a moving van. Mere compression, of co
urse, is not enough; one needs not only to make and store a record but also
be able to consult it, and this aspect of the matter comes later. Even the m
odern great library is not generally consulted; it is nibbled at by a few.
Compression is important, however, when it comes to costs. The material for
the microfilm Britannica would cost a nickel, and it could be mailed anywher
e for a cent. What would it cost to print a million copies? To print a sheet
of newspaper, in a large edition, costs a small fraction of a cent. The ent
ire material of the Britannica in reduced microfilm form would go on a sheet
eight and one-half by eleven inches. Once it is available, with the photogr
aphic reproduction methods of the future, duplicates in large quantities cou
ld probably be turned out for a cent apiece beyond the cost of materials. Th
e preparation of the original copy? That introduces the next aspect of the s
ubject.
3
To make the record, we now push a pencil or tap a typewriter. Then comes the
process of digestion and correction, followed by an intricate process of ty
pesetting, printing, and distribution. To consider the first stage of the pr
ocedure, will the author of the future cease writing by hand or typewriter a
nd talk directly to the record? He does so indirectly, by talking to a steno
grapher or a wax cylinder; but the elements are all present if he wishes to
have his talk directly produce a typed record. All he needs to do is to take
advantage of existing mechanisms and to alter his language.
At a recent World Fair a machine called a Voder was shown. A girl stroked it
s keys and it emitted recognizable speech. No human vocal chords entered int
o the procedure at any point; the keys simply combined some electrically pro
duced vibrations and passed these on to a loud-speaker. In the Bell Laborato
ries there is the converse of this machine, called a Vocoder. The loudspeake
r is replaced by a microphone, which picks up sound. Speak to it, and the co
rresponding keys move. This may be one element of the postulated system.
The other element is found in the stenotype, that somewhat disconcerting dev
ice encountered usually at public meetings. A girl strokes its keys languidl
y and looks about the room and sometimes at the speaker with a disquieting g
aze. From it emerges a typed strip which records in a phonetically simplifie
d language a record of what the speaker is supposed to have said. Later this
strip is retyped into ordinary language, for in its nascent form it is inte
lligible only to the initiated. Combine these two elements, let the Vocoder
run the stenotype, and the result is a machine which types when talked to.
Our present languages are not especially adapted to this sort of mechanizati
on, it is true. It is strange that the inventors of universal languages have
not seized upon the idea of producing one which better fitted the technique
for transmitting and recording speech. Mechanization may yet force the issu
e, especially in the scientific field; whereupon scientific jargon would bec
ome still less intelligible to the layman.
One can now picture a future investigator in his laboratory. His hands are f
ree, and he is not anchored. As he moves about and observes, he photographs
and comments. Time is automatically recorded to tie the two records together
. If he goes into the field, he may be connected by radio to his recorder. A
s he ponders over his notes in the evening, he again talks his comments into
the record. His typed record, as well as his photographs, may both be in mi
niature, so that he projects them for examination.
Much needs to occur, however, between the collection of data and observation
s, the extraction of parallel material from the existing record, and the fin
al insertion of new material into the general body of the common record. For
mature thought there is no mechanical substitute. But creative thought and
essentially repetitive thought are very different things. For the latter the
re are, and may be, powerful mechanical aids.
Adding a column of figures is a repetitive thought process, and it was long
ago properly relegated to the machine. True, the machine is sometimes contro
lled by a keyboard, and thought of a sort enters in reading the figures and
poking the corresponding keys, but even this is avoidable. Machines have bee
n made which will read typed figures by photocells and then depress the corr
esponding keys; these are combinations of photocells for scanning the type,
electric circuits for sorting the consequent variations, and relay circuits
for interpreting the result into the action of solenoids to pull the keys do
wn.
All this complication is needed because of the clumsy way in which we have l
earned to write figures. If we recorded them positionally, simply by the con
figuration of a set of dots on a card, the automatic reading mechanism would
become comparatively simple. In fact if the dots are holes, we have the pun
ched-card machine long ago produced by Hollorith for the purposes of the cen
sus, and now used throughout business. Some types of complex businesses coul
d hardly operate without these machines.
Adding is only one operation. To perform arithmetical computation involves a
lso subtraction, multiplication, and division, and in addition some method f
or temporary storage of results, removal from storage for further manipulati
on, and recording of final results by printing. Machines for these purposes
are now of two types: keyboard machines for accounting and the like, manuall
y controlled for the insertion of data, and usually automatically controlled
as far as the sequence of operations is concerned; and punched-card machine
s in which separate operations are usually delegated to a series of machines
, and the cards then transferred bodily from one to another. Both forms are
very useful; but as far as complex computations are concerned, both are stil
l in embryo.
Rapid electrical counting appeared soon after the physicists found it desira
ble to count cosmic rays. For their own purposes the physicists promptly con
structed thermionic-tube equipment capable of counting electrical impulses a
t the rate of 100,000 a second. The advanced arithmetical machines of the fu
ture will be electrical in nature, and they will perform at 100 times presen
t speeds, or more.
Moreover, they will be far more versatile than present commercial machines,
so that they may readily be adapted for a wide variety of operations. They w
ill be controlled by a control card or film, they will select their own data
and manipulate it in accordance with the instructions thus inserted, they w
ill perform complex arithmetical computations at exceedingly high speeds, an
d they will record results in such form as to be readily available for distr
ibution or for later further manipulation. Such machines will have enormous
appetites. One of them will take instructions and data from a whole roomful
of girls armed with simple key board punches, and will deliver sheets of com
puted results every few minutes. There will always be plenty of things to co
mpute in the detailed affairs of millions of people doing complicated things
.
4
The repetitive processes of thought are not confined however, to matters of
arithmetic and statistics. In fact, every time one combines and records fact
s in accordance with established logical processes, the creative aspect of t
hinking is concerned only with the selection of the data and the process to
be employed and the manipulation thereafter is repetitive in nature and henc
e a fit matter to be relegated to the machine. Not so much has been done alo
ng these lines,beyond the bounds of arithmetic, as might be done, primarily
because of the economics of the situation. The needs of business and the ext
ensive market obviously waiting, assured the advent of mass-produced arithme
tical machines just as soon as production methods were sufficiently advanced
.
With machines for advanced analysis no such situation existed; for there was
and is no extensive market; the users of advanced methods of manipulating d
ata are a very small part of the population. There are, however, machines fo
r solving differential equations -- and functional and integral equations, f
or that matter. There are many special machines, such as the harmonic synthe
sizer which predicts the tides. There will be many more, appearing certainly
first in the hands of the scientist and in small numbers.
If scientific reasoning were limited to the logical processes of arithmetic,
we should not get far in our understanding of the physical world. One might
as well attempt to grasp the game of poker entirely by the use of the mathe
matics of probability. The abacus, with its beads strung on parallel wires,
led the Arabs to positional numeration and the concept of zero many centurie
s before the rest of the world; and it was a useful tool -- so useful that i
t still exists.
It is a far cry from the abacus to the modern keyboard accounting machine. I
t will be an equal step to the arithmetical machine of the future. But even
this new machine will not take the scientist where he needs to go. Relief mu
st be secured from laborious detailed manipulation of higher mathematics as
well, if the users of it are to free their brains for something more than re
petitive detailed transformations in accordance with established rules. A ma
thematician is not a man who can readily manipulate figures; often he cannot
. He is not even a man who can readily perform the transformations of equati
ons by the use of calculus. He is primarily an individual who is skilled in
the use of symbolic logic on a high plane, and especially he is a man of int
uitive judgment in the choice of the manipulative processes he employs.
All else he should be able to turn over to his mechanism, just as confidentl
y as he turns over the propelling of his car to the intricate mechanism unde
r the hood. Only then will mathematics be practically effective in bringing
the growing knowledge of atomistics to the useful solution of the advanced p
roblems of chemistry, metallurgy, and biology. For this reason there still c
ome more machines to handle advanced mathematics for the scientist. Some of
them will be sufficiently bizarre to suit the most fastidious connoisseur of
the present artifacts of civilization.
5
The scientist, however, is not the only person who manipulates data and exam
ines the world about him by the use of logical processes, although he someti
mes preserves this appearance by adopting into the fold anyone who becomes l
ogical, much in the manner in which a British labor leader is elevated to kn
ighthood. Whenever logical processes of thought are employed -- that is, whe
never thought for a time runs along an accepted groove -- there is an opport
unity for the machine. Formal logic used to be a keen instrument in the hand
s of the teacher in his trying of students' souls. It is readily possible to
construct a machine which will manipulate premises in accordance with forma
l logic, simply by the clever use of relay circuits. Put a set of premises i
nto such a device and turn the crank, and it will readily pass out conclusio
n after conclusion, all in accordance with logical law, and with no more sli
ps than would be expected of a keyboard adding machine.
Logic can become enormously difficult, and it would undoubtedly be well to p
roduce more assurance in its use. The machines for higher analysis have usua
lly been equation solvers. Ideas are beginning to appear for equation transf
ormers, which will rearrange the relationship expressed by an equation in ac
cordance with strict and rather advanced logic. Progress is inhibited by the
exceedingly crude way in which mathematicians express their relationships.
They employ a symbolism which grew like Topsy and has little consistency; a
strange fact in that most logical field.
A new symbolism, probably positional, must apparently precede the reduction
of mathematical transformations to machine processes. Then, on beyond the st
rict logic of the mathematician, lies the application of logic in everyday a
ffairs. We may some day click off arguments on a machine with the same assur
ance that we now enter sales on a cash register. But the machine of logic wi
ll not look like a cash register, even of the streamlined model.
So much for the manipulation of ideas and their insertion into the record. T
hus far we seem to be worse off than before -- for we can enormously extend
the record; yet even in its present bulk we can hardly consult it. This is a
much larger matter than merely the extraction of data for the purposes of s
cientific research; it involves the entire process by which man profits by h
is inheritance of acquired knowledge. The prime action of use is selection,
and here we are halting indeed. There may be millions of fine thoughts, and
the account of the experience on which they are based, all encased within st
one walls of acceptable architectural form; but if the scholar can get at on
ly one a week by diligent search, his syntheses are not likely to keep up wi
th the current scene.
Selection, in this broad sense, is a stone adze in the hands of a cabinetmak
er. Yet, in a narrow sense and in other areas, something has already been do
ne mechanically on selection. The personnel officer of a factory drops a sta
ck of a few thousand employee cards into a selecting machine, sets a code in
accordance with an established convention, and produces in a short time a l
ist of all employees who live in Trenton and know Spanish. Even such devices
are much too slow when it comes, for example, to matching a set of fingerpr
ints with one of five million on file. Selection devices of this sort will s
oon be speeded up from their present rate of reviewing data at a few hundred
a minute. By the use of photocells and microfilm they will survey items at
the rate of a thousand a second, and will print out duplicates of those sele
cted.
This process, however, is simple selection: it proceeds by examining in turn
every one of a large set of items, and by picking out those which have cert
ain specified characteristics. There is another form of selection best illus
trated by the automatic telephone exchange. You dial a number and the machin
e selects and connects just one of a million possible stations. It does not
run over them all. It pays attention only to a class given by a first digit,
then only to a subclass of this given by the second digit, and so on; and t
hus proceeds rapidly and almost unerringly to the selected station. It requi
res a few seconds to make the selection, although the process could be speed
ed up if increased speed were economically warranted. If necessary, it could
be made extremely fast by substituting thermionic-tube switching for mechan
ical switching, so that the full selection could be made in one one-hundredt
h of a second. No one would wish to spend the money necessary to make this c
hange in the telephone system, but the general idea is applicable elsewhere.
Take the prosaic problem of the great department store. Every time a charge
sale is made, there are a number of things to be done. The inventory needs t
o be revised, the salesman needs to be given credit for the sale, the genera
l accounts need an entry, and, most important, the customer needs to be char
ged. A central records device has been developed in which much of this work
is done conveniently. The salesman places on a stand the customer's identifi
cation card, his own card, and the card taken from the article sold -- all p
unched cards. When he pulls a lever, contacts are made through the holes, ma
chinery at a central point makes the necessary computations and entries, and
the proper receipt is printed for the salesman to pass to the customer.
But there may be ten thousand charge customers doing business with the store
, and before the full operation can be completed someone has to select the r
ight card and insert it at the central office. Now rapid selection can slide
just the proper card into position in an instant or two, and return it afte
rward. Another difficulty occurs, however. Someone must read a total on the
card, so that the machine can add its computed item to it. Conceivably the c
ards might be of the dry photography type I have described. Existing totals
could then be read by photocell, and the new total entered by an electron be
am.
The cards may be in miniature, so that they occupy little space. They must m
ove quickly. They need not be transferred far, but merely into position so t
hat the photocell and recorder can operate on them. Positional dots can ente
r the data. At the end of the month a machine can readily be made to read th
ese and to print an ordinary bill. With tube selection, in which no mechanic
al parts are involved in the switches, little time need be occupied in bring
ing the correct card into use -- a second should suffice for the entire oper
ation. The whole record on the card may be made by magnetic dots on a steel
sheet if desired, instead of dots to be observed optically, following the sc
heme by which Poulsen long ago put speech on a magnetic wire. This method ha
s the advantage of simplicity and ease of erasure. By using photography, how
ever one can arrange to project the record in enlarged form and at a distanc
e by using the process common in television equipment.
One can consider rapid selection of this form, and distant projection for ot
her purposes. To be able to key one sheet of a million before an operator in
a second or two, with the possibility of then adding notes thereto, is sugg
estive in many ways. It might even be of use in libraries, but that is anoth
er story. At any rate, there are now some interesting combinations possible.
One might, for example, speak to a microphone, in the manner described in c
onnection with the speech controlled typewriter, and thus make his selection
s. It would certainly beat the usual file clerk.
6
The real heart of the matter of selection, however, goes deeper than a lag i
n the adoption of mechanisms by libraries, or a lack of development of devic
es for their use. Our ineptitude in getting at the record is largely caused
by the artificiality of systems of indexing. When data of any sort are place
d in storage, they are filed alphabetically or numerically, and information
is found (when it is) by tracing it down from subclass to subclass. It can b
e in only one place, unless duplicates are used; one has to have rules as to
which path will locate it, and the rules are cumbersome. Having found one i
tem, moreover, one has to emerge from the system and re-enter on a new path.
The human mind does not work that way. It operates by association. With one
item in its grasp, it snaps instantly to the next that is suggested by the a
ssociation of thoughts, in accordance with some intricate web of trails carr
ied by the cells of the brain. It has other characteristics, of course; trai
ls that are not frequently followed are prone to fade, items are not fully p
ermanent, memory is transitory. Yet the speed of action, the intricacy of tr
ails, the detail of mental pictures, is awe-inspiring beyond all else in nat
ure.
Man cannot hope fully to duplicate this mental process artificially, but he
certainly ought to be able to learn from it. In minor ways he may even impro
ve, for his records have relative permanency. The first idea, however, to be
drawn from the analogy concerns selection. Selection by association, rather
than indexing, may yet be mechanized. One cannot hope thus to equal the spe
ed and flexibility with which the mind follows an associative trail, but it
should be possible to beat the mind decisively in regard to the permanence a
nd clarity of the items resurrected from storage.
Consider a future device for individual use, which is a sort of mechanized p
rivate file and library. It needs a name, and, to coin one at random, "memex
" will do. A memex is a device in which an individual stores all his books,
records, and communications, and which is mechanized so that it may be consu
lted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supple
ment to his memory.
It consists of a desk, and while it can presumably be operated from a distan
ce, it is primarily the piece of furniture at which he works. On the top are
slanting translucent screens, on which material can be projected for conven
ient reading. There is a keyboard, and sets of buttons and levers. Otherwise
it looks like an ordinary desk.
In one end is the stored material. The matter of bulk is well taken care of
by improved microfilm. Only a small part of the interior of the memex is dev
oted to storage, the rest to mechanism. Yet if the user inserted 5000 pages
of material a day it would take him hundreds of years to fill the repository
, so he can be profligate and enter material freely.
Most of the memex contents are purchased on microfilm ready for insertion. B
ooks of all sorts, pictures, current periodicals, newspapers, are thus obtai
ned and dropped into place. Business correspondence takes the same path. And
there is provision for direct entry. On the top of the memex is a transpare
nt platen. On this are placed longhand notes, photographs, memoranda, all so
rts of things. When one is in place, the depression of a lever causes it to
be photographed onto the next blank space in a section of the memex film, dr
y photography being employed.
There is, of course, provision for consultation of the record by the usual s
cheme of indexing. If the user wishes to consult a certain book, he taps its
code on the keyboard, and the title page of the book promptly appears befor
e him, projected onto one of his viewing positions. Frequently-used codes ar
e mnemonic, so that he seldom consults his code book; but when he does, a si
ngle tap of a key projects it for his use. Moreover, he has supplemental lev
ers. On deflecting one of these levers to the right he runs through the book
before him, each page in turn being projected at a speed which just allows
a recognizing glance at each. If he deflects it further to the right, he ste
ps through the book 10 pages at a time; still further at 100 pages at a time
. Deflection to the left gives him the same control backwards.
A special button transfers him immediately to the first page of the index. A
ny given book of his library can thus be called up and consulted with far gr
eater facility than if it were taken from a shelf. As he has several project
ion positions, he can leave one item in position while he calls up another.
He can add marginal notes and comments, taking advantage of one possible typ
e of dry photography, and it could even be arranged so that he can do this b
y a stylus scheme, such as is now employed in the telautograph seen in railr
oad waiting rooms, just as though he had the physical page before him.
7
All this is conventional, except for the projection forward of present-day m
echanisms and gadgetry. It affords an immediate step, however, to associativ
e indexing, the basic idea of which is a provision whereby any item may be c
aused at will to select immediately and automatically another. This is the e
ssential feature of the memex. The process of tying two items together is th
e important thing.
When the user is building a trail, he names it, inserts the name in his code
book, and taps it out on his keyboard. Before him are the two items to be j
oined, projected onto adjacent viewing positions. At the bottom of each ther
e are a number of blank code spaces, and a pointer is set to indicate one of
these on each item. The user taps a single key, and the items are permanent
ly joined. In each code space appears the code word. Out of view, but also i
n the code space, is inserted a set of dots for photocell viewing; and on ea
ch item these dots by their positions designate the index number of the othe
r item.
Thereafter, at any time, when one of these items is in view, the other can b
e instantly recalled merely by tapping a button below the corresponding code
space. Moreover, when numerous items have been thus joined together to form
a trail, they can be reviewed in turn, rapidly or slowly, by deflecting a l
ever like that used for turning the pages of a book. It is exactly as though
the physical items had been gathered together from widely separated sources
and bound together to form a new book. It is more than this, for any item c
an be joined into numerous trails.
The owner of the memex, let us say, is interested in the origin and properti
es of the bow and arrow. Specifically he is studying why the short Turkish b
ow was apparently superior to the English long bow in the skirmishes of the
Crusades. He has dozens of possibly pertinent books and articles in his meme
x. First he runs through an encyclopedia, finds an interesting but sketchy a
rticle, leaves it projected. Next, in a history, he finds another pertinent
item, and ties the two together. Thus he goes, building a trail of many item
s. Occasionally he inserts a comment of his own, either linking it into the
main trail or joining it by a side trail to a particular item. When it becom
es evident that the elastic properties of available materials had a great de
al to do with the bow, he branches off on a side trail which takes him throu
gh textbooks on elasticity and tables of physical constants. He inserts a pa
ge of longhand analysis of his own. Thus he builds a trail of his interest t
hrough the maze of materials available to him.
And his trails do not fade. Several years later, his talk with a friend turn
s to the queer ways in which a people resist innovations, even of vital inte
rest. He has an example, in the fact that the outraged Europeans still faile
d to adopt the Turkish bow. In fact he has a trail on it. A touch brings up
the code book. Tapping a few keys projects the head of the trail. A lever ru
ns through it at will, stopping at interesting items, going off on side excu
rsions. It is an interesting trail, pertinent to the discussion. So he sets
a reproducer in action, photographs the whole trail out, and passes it to hi
s friend for insertion in his own memex, there to be linked into the more ge
neral trail.
8
Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready made with a mesh of ass
ociative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and
there amplified. The lawyer has at his touch the associated opinions and de
cisions of his whole experience, and of the experience of friends and author
ities. The patent attorney has on call the millions of issued patents, with
familiar trails to every point of his client's interest. The physician, puzz
led by a patient's reactions, strikes the trail established in studying an e
arlier similar case, and runs rapidly through analogous case histories, with
side references to the classics for the pertinent anatomy and histology. Th
e chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the
chemical literature before him in his laboratory, with trails following the
analogies of compounds, and side trails to their physical and chemical beha
vior.
The historian, with a vast chronological account of a people, parallels it w
ith a skip trail which stops only on the salient items, and can follow at an
y time contemporary trails which lead him all over civilization at a particu
lar epoch. There is a new profession of trail blazers, those who find deligh
t in the task of establishing useful trails through the enormous mass of the
common record. The inheritance from the master becomes, not only his additi
ons to the world's record, but for his disciples the entire scaffolding by w
hich they were erected.
Thus science may implement the ways in which man produces, stores, and consu
lts the record of the race. It might be striking to outline the instrumental
ities of the future more spectacularly, rather than to stick closely to meth
ods and elements now known and undergoing rapid development, as has been don
e here. Technical difficulties of all sorts have been ignored, certainly, bu
t also ignored are means as yet unknown which may come any day to accelerate
technical progress as violently as did the advent of the thermionic tube. I
n order that the picture may not be too commonplace, by reason of sticking t
o present-day patterns, it may be well to mention one such possibility, not
to prophesy but merely to suggest, for prophecy based on extension of the kn
own has substance, while prophecy founded on the unknown is only a doubly in
volved guess.
All our steps in creating or absorbing material of the record proceed throug
h one of the senses -- the tactile when we touch keys, the oral when we spea
k or listen, the visual when we read. Is it not possible that some day the p
ath may be established more directly?
We know that when the eye sees, all the consequent information is transmitte
d to the brain by means of electrical vibrations in the channel of the optic
nerve. This is an exact analogy with the electrical vibrations which occur
in the cable of a television set: they convey the picture from the photocell
s which see it to the radio transmitter from which it is broadcast. We know
further that if we can approach that cable with the proper instruments, we d
o not need to touch it; we can pick up those vibrations by electrical induct
ion and thus discover and reproduce the scene which is being transmitted, ju
st as a telephone wire may be tapped for its message.
The impulses which flow in the arm nerves of a typist convey to her fingers
the translated information which reaches her eye or ear, in order that the f
ingers may be caused to strike the proper keys. Might not these currents be
intercepted, either in the original form in which information is conveyed to
the brain, or in the marvelously metamorphosed form in which they then proc
eed to the hand?
By bone conduction we already introduce sounds: into the nerve channels of t
he deaf in order that they may hear. Is it not possible that we may learn to
introduce them without the present cumbersomeness of first transforming ele
ctrical vibrations to mechanical ones, which the human mechanism promptly tr
ansforms back to the electrical form? With a couple of electrodes on the sku
ll the encephalograph now produces pen-and-ink traces which bear some relati
on to the electrical phenomena going on in the brain itself. True, the recor
d is unintelligible, except as it points out certain gross misfunctioning of
the cerebral mechanism; but who would now place bounds on where such a thin
g may lead?
In the outside world, all forms of intelligence whether of sound or sight, h
ave been reduced to the form of varying currents in an electric circuit in o
rder that they may be transmitted. Inside the human frame exactly the same s
ort of process occurs. Must we always transform to mechanical movements in o
rder to proceed from one electrical phenomenon to another? It is a suggestiv
e thought, but it hardly warrants prediction without losing touch with reali
ty and immediateness.
Presumably man's spirit should be elevated if he can better review his shady
past and analyze more completely and objectively his present problems. He h
as built a civilization so complex that he needs to mechanize his records mo
re fully if he is to push his experiment to its logical conclusion and not m
erely become bogged down part way there by overtaxing his limited memory. Hi
s excursions may be more enjoyable if he can reacquire the privilege of forg
etting the manifold things he does not need to have immediately at hand, wit
h some assurance that he can find them again if they prove important.
The applications of science have built man a well-supplied house, and are te
aching him to live healthily therein. They have enabled him to throw masses
of people against one another with cruel weapons. They may yet allow him tru
ly to encompass the great record and to grow in the wisdom of race experienc
e. He may perish in conflict before he learns to wield that record for his t
rue good. Yet, in the application of science to the needs and desires of man
, it would seem to be a singularly unfortunate stage at which to terminate t
he process, or to lose hope as to the outcome.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----
Copyright ? 1945 by Vannevar Bush. All rights reserved.
The Atlantic Monthly; July, 1945; As We May Think; Volume 176, No. 1; pages
101-108.
--
<<社会契约论>>是一本好书,应当多读几遍
风味的肘子味道不错,我还想再吃它
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