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标 题: Allen Newell(1975)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2002年04月26日08:00:48 星期五), 站内信件
Allen Newell
Born: 1927
Died: 1992
Nationality: American
Occupation: computer scientist
Source: Notable Twentieth-Century Scientists. Gale Research, 1995.
Table of Contents
Biographical Essay
Further Readings
Works
BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY
Allen Newell, an expert on how people think and a developer of complex infor
mation processing programs, was a pioneer in the field of artificial intelli
gence . From his development in the 1950s of Logic Theorist , one of the ini
tial forays into artificial intelligence, to his presentation of the sophist
icated problem-solving software system know as "SOAR" in the 1980s, Newell w
orked to link computer science and advances in understanding human cognition
.
Newell was born in San Francisco on March 19, 1927, the son of Robert R. and
Jeannette (LeValley) Newell. Robert Newell, a professor of radiology at Sta
nford Medical School, had a strong influence on his son. "[My father] was in
many respects a complete man," Newell told Pamela McCorduck in an interview
reported in Machines Who Think. "We used to go up and spend our summers on
the High Sierra. He'd built a log cabin up in the mountains in the 1920s. An
d my father knew all about how to do things out in the woods--he could fish,
pan for gold, the whole bit. At the same time, he was the complete intellec
tual.... My father knew literature, all the classics, and he also knew a lot
of physics." Newell told McCorduck, however, that his own desire for scient
ific achievement had led him to focus his interests much more narrowly than
had his father.
Newell served for two years on active duty in the Naval Reserve during World
War II. In 1947, he married Noel Marie McKenna; they would have one son, Pa
ul Allen Newell. After obtaining his B.S. in physics from Stanford Universit
y in 1949, Newell spent a year at Princeton University doing post-graduate w
ork in mathematics, then went to work in 1950 as a research scientist for th
e RAND (Research and Development) Corporation in Santa Monica, California.
A Pioneer in the Field of Artificial Intelligence
While at RAND, Newell worked with the Air Force to simulate an early warning
monitoring station with radar screens and a crew. His need to simulate the
crew's reactions led to his interest in determining how people think. Workin
g together throughout the 1950s and into the 1960s, Newell and his colleague
s Herbert A. Simon and Clifford Shaw were able to identify general reasoning
techniques by observing the problem-solving behavior of human subjects. One
of the best known of these techniques is means-ends analysis, a process tha
t analyzes the gap between a current situation and a desired end and searche
s for the means to close that gap.
In order to make use of computers in studying problem-solving behavior, Newe
ll, Simon, and Shaw observed individuals as they worked through well-structu
red problems of logic. Subjects verbalized their reasoning as they worked th
rough the problems. The three scientists were then able to code this reasoni
ng in the form of a computer program. To make the program work, the scientis
ts used a language called Information Processing Language (IPL) that they ha
d developed previously for a computerized chess game. Their program, known a
s Logic Theorist, was not subject-matter specific; rather, it focused on the
problem-solving process. Newell, Simon, and Shaw followed Logic Theorist wi
th the development of General Problem Solver , a program that used means-end
analysis to solve problems. Like Logic Theorist, General Problem Solver use
d the IPL language they had developed earlier.
During the summer of 1956, Newell and Simon were among a group of about a do
zen scientists that gathered at Dartmouth College. The scientists came from
a wide variety of fields, including mathematics, psychology, neurology, and
electrical engineering. Though their backgrounds differed, they all had one
thing in common: all were using computers in their research in an effort to
simulate some aspect of human intelligence. With their Logic Theorist progra
m, however, Newell and Simon were the only participants who could offer a wo
rking program in what would come to be known as "artificial intelligence." T
he Dartmouth Conference is generally viewed as the formal beginning of the f
ield of artificial intelligence.
In 1957, Newell earned his Ph.D. in industrial administration from Carnegie
Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1961 he left his pos
ition at RAND to join the faculty of Carnegie-Mellon University (formerly th
e Carnegie Institute of Technology), where he helped develop the School of C
omputer Science.
Problem-solving Software That Thinks
During the 1980s, Newell, along with his former students John Laird and Paul
Rosenbloom , developed a more sophisticated software system that solved pro
blems in a manner similar to the human mind. This system, called SOAR (State
, Operator, and Result), was a general problem-solving program that learned
from experience in that it was able to remember how it solved problems and t
o make use of that knowledge in subsequent problem-solving. SOAR, like human
s, used working memory and long-term memory to solve problems. If SOAR was w
orking toward a desired goal, it used working memory to keep track of the cu
rrent situation, or "state," in the problem-solving process compared with th
e desired goal or "result." In order to make the decisions necessary to achi
eve a goal, people use information they have accumulated through experience.
People use long-term memory to access information; SOAR also used long-term
memory, programmed as a series of IF/THEN statements.
While the use of IF/THEN statements in a computer program wasn't a new idea,
the way in which SOAR processed those statements was new. In the past, only
one IF/THEN statement could control a computer program at any given time. I
f conflicting statements could apply to a problem, the problem-solving proce
ss would break down. SOAR, on the other hand, was designed to look at all of
the programmed IF/THEN statements at once. After looking at all of the stat
ements, SOAR would weigh them as suggestions, then decide which move, or "op
erator," would best advance it towards the desired result. If there were no
IF/THEN statements stored in memory that applied specifically to the problem
at hand, SOAR would use any available information that seemed potentially u
seful to try to resolve the problem. Whenever it solved one of these unexpec
ted problems, SOAR would remember how it solved the problem, adding this inf
ormation to its long-term memory. Like the human mind, SOAR was thus able bo
th to generate original responses to new problems and to "learn" from its ex
periences.
In the late 1980s, Newell began an active campaign to promote the use of SOA
R as the basis for a new effort to develop a unified theory of cognition. Wh
ereas current research in artificial intelligence tended to focus on narrow
and isolated aspects of cognition, Newell hoped SOAR would help cognitive ps
ychologists devise broad theories of human cognition and advance towards an
integrated understanding of all aspects of human thought.
Career Capped with National Medal of Science
Newell received the National Medal of Science from President George Bush jus
t a month before his death from cancer on July 19, 1992. His work had alread
y brought him a number of other honors, including the Harry Goode Memorial A
ward, which he received from the American Federation of Information Processi
ng Societies in 1971, and the A. M. Turing Award, presented jointly to Newel
l and Simon by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1975. Newell was f
ounding president of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence an
d also served as head of the Cognitive Science Society. Along with his colle
ague Herbert Simon and computer scientists Marvin Minsky and John Mc Carthy,
he is considered one of the fathers of artificial intelligence.
WORKS
The Logic Theory Machine: A Complex Information Processing System, RAND Corp
., revised edition, 1956.
GPS, A Case Study in Generality and Problem Solving, Academic Press, 1969.
Human Problem Solving, Prentice-Hall, 1972.
The Psychology of the Human Computer, L. Erlbaum Associates, 1983.
Unified Theories of Cognition, Harvard University Press, 1990.
FURTHER READINGS
McCorduck, Pamela, Machines Who Think, W.H. Freeman, 1979, pp. 122123.
Mishkoff, Henry C., Understanding Artificial Intelligence, Howard W. Sams, 1
985, pp. 3135, 152.
Fox, John, Nature, Models of Mind, September 26, 1991, pp. 312313.
Fox, John, New York Times, July 20, 1992, p. D8.
Waldrop, M. Mitchell, Science, SOAR: A Unified Theory of Cognition?, July 15
, 1988, pp. 296298.
Waldrop, M. Mitchell, Science, Toward a Unified Theory of Cognition, July 1,
1988, pp. 2729.
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