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发信人: netiscpu (说不如做), 信区: Linux
标 题: [B] Red Hat Linux Unleashed (40)
发信站: 紫 丁 香 (Sat Jul 25 05:01:28 1998), 转信
Processes
_________________________________________________________________
o Processes
# Types of Processes
o Using the ps Command
# ps Command Output
# Login Shells
# For the Superuser
# Useful ps options
@ For System Administrators
o Using kill
# killing Child Processes
# killing Rights
o Summary
_________________________________________________________________
40
Processes
Everything that runs on a Linux system is a process—every user
task, every system daemon—everything is a process. Knowing how to
manage the processes running on your Linux system is an important
(indeed even critical) aspect of system administration. This chapter
looks processes in some detail. In this chapter you will see:
* How to find out what processes are running
* Determine when a process is hogging the system
* How to find out which processes are locked up
* How to terminate a process
* How to properly manage processes
In the course of discussing processes, we don't bother with the
mechanics behind how processes are allocated, or how the Linux kernel
manages to time-slice all the processes to run a multitasking
operating system. Instead, we'll look at the nitty-gritty aspects of
process control that you need in order to keep your system running
smoothly.
You may come across the terms process and job used when dealing with
multitasking operating systems. For most purposes, both terms are
correct. However, a job is usually a process started by a shell (and
may involve many processes), while a process is a single entity that
is executing. To be correct, we'll use the term process throughout.
Processes
A formal definition of a process is that it is a single program
running in its own virtual address space. This means that everything
running under Linux is a process. This is compared to a job, which may
involve several commands executing in series. Alternatively, a single
command line issued at the shell prompt may involve more than one
process, especially when pipes or redirection are involved. For
example, the command
nroff -man ps.1 | grep kill | more
will start three processes, one for each command.
Types of Processes
There are several types of processes involved with the Linux operating
system. Each has its own special features and attributes. The
processes involved with Linux are:
* Interactive processes: A process initiated from (and controlled
by) a shell. Interactive processes may be in foreground or
background.
* Batch processes: Processes that are not associated with a terminal
but are submitted to a queue to be executed sequentially.
* Daemon processes: Processes usually initiated when Linux boots and
that run in the background until required.
Using the ps Command
The easiest method of finding out what processes are running on your
system is to use the ps (process status) command. The ps command has a
number of options and arguments, although most system administrators
use only a couple of common command-line formats. We can start by
looking at the basic usage of the ps command, and then examine some of
the useful options.
The ps command is available to all system users, as well as root,
although the output changes a little depending on whether you are
logged in as root when you issue the command.
When you are logged in as a normal system user (in other words, any
login but root) and issue the ps command on the command line by
itself, it displays information about every process you are running.
For example, you might see the following output when you issue the
command:
$ ps
PID TTY STAT TIME COMMAND
41 v01 S 0:00 -bash
134 v01 R 0:00 ps
ps Command Output
The output of the ps command is always organized in columns. Every
process on the system has to have a unique identifier so Linux can
tell which processes it is working with. Linux handles processes by
assigning a unique number to each process, called the "Process ID"
number (or PID). PIDs start at zero when the system is booted and
increment by one for each process run, up to some system-determined
number (such as 65,564) at which point it starts numbering from zero
again, ignoring those that are still active. Usually, the
lowest-number processes are the system kernel and daemons, which start
when Linux boots and remain active as long as Linux is running. When
you are working with processes (such as terminating them), you must
use the PID.
The TTY column in the ps command output shows you which terminal the
process was started from. If you are logged in as a user, this will
usually be your terminal or console window. If you are running on
multiple console windows, you will see all the processes you started
in every window displayed.
The STAT column in the ps command output shows you the current status
of the process. The two most common entries in the status column are S
for sleeping and R for running. A running process is one that is
currently executing on the CPU. A sleeping process is one which isn't
currently active. Processes may switch between sleeping and running
many times every second.
The TIME column shows the total amount of system (CPU) time used by
the process so far. These numbers tend to be very small for most
processes because they require only a short time to complete. The
numbers under the TIME column are a total of the CPU time, not the
amount of time the process has been alive.
Finally, the COMMAND column contains the name of the command line you
are running. This is usually the command line you used, although some
commands start up other processes. These are called "child" processes,
and they show up in the ps output as if you had entered them as
commands.
Login Shells
As a general convention, a login shell has a hyphen placed before its
name (such as -bash in the previous output) to help you distinguish
the startup shell from any shells you may have started afterwards. Any
other shells that appear in the output do not have the hyphen in front
of the name, as the following example shows:
$ ps
PID TTY STAT TIME COMMAND
46 v01 S 0:01 -bash
75 v01 S 0:00 pdksh
96 v01 R 0:00 bash
123 v01 R 0:00 ps
This output shows that the user's startup shell is bash (PID 46), and
that he or she started up the Korn shell (pdksh, PID 75) and another
Bourne shell (bash, PID 96) afterward.
Notice in the preceding outputs that the command that actually showed
you the process status, ps, appears on the output because it was
running when you issued the command. The ps command always appears on
the output.
For the Superuser
When normal users issue the ps command, they see only their own
processes. If you issue the ps command when you are logged in as the
superuser (usually root, although you can change the name), you will
see all the processes on the system, because the root login owns
everything running. This can produce very long outputs, especially on
a system with several users, so you probably want to pipe the output
from the ps command to a page filter (such as more or less), or save
the output in a file for further examination. Both commands are shown
here:
ps | more
ps > /tmp/ps_file
Useful ps options
A useful ps option for checking user processes is -u, which adds
several columns to the output of the ps command. The output from a
user (not root) command using this option looks like this:
$ ps -u
USER PID %CPU %MEM SIZE RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
bill 41 0.1 6.8 364 472 v01 S 23:19 0:01 -bash
bill 138 0.0 3.3 72 228 v01 R 23:34 0:00 ps -u
The most important addition to the output is the USER column, which
shows who started and owns the process. The name listed under the USER
column is the user's login name, as found in the /etc/passwd file. (ps
does a look-up in the /etc/passwd file to convert the user ID
number—UID—to the proper user name.)
This option also adds the column labeled %CPU which shows the
percentage of CPU time that has been used by the process so far. The
column %MEM shows the percentage of your system's memory currently
used by the process. These numbers can be handy for finding processes
that consume far too much CPU or memory, called "CPU hogs" and "memory
hogs" by most administrators. If you see a user process that has very
high usage, it is worth checking to make sure it is a valid process
and not a run-away that will continue to grind at your system's
resources.
When you issue this command logged in as root, you see all the
processes running on the system. As before, you should consider
paginating the output to make it readable. With some versions of
Linux's ps command, you can also use the -u option to specify a user's
processes by adding each username. For example, if you are logged in
as root and want to see only Yvonne's processes, you could issue the
command:
ps -u yvonne
This format of the -u option works with System V versions of ps, but
not the BSD-based version of ps included with most Linux distributions
(including the one of the CD-ROM). You can obtain other versions of ps
on FTP and BBS sites. Most users can issue this command to examine
other users' processes, as well. This lets them find out who is
hogging all the CPU time! It also lets the superuser see the processes
that users are running when they report problems, without having to
wade through all the system processes as well.
Users can also see all the processes running on the system (instead of
just the processes started by them) by using the -a option. Because
the superuser sees all the processes on the system anyway, the root
login doesn't have to use this option, although it is still legal to
use it. This output doesn't change, though. When issued by a user (not
root), the -a option produces the following output:
$ ps -a
PID TTY STAT TIME COMMAND
1 psf S 0:00 init
6 psf S 0:00 update (sync)
23 psf S 0:00 /usr/sbin/crond -l10
29 psf S 0:00 /usr/sbin/syslogd
31 psf S 0:00 /usr/sbin/klogd
33 psf S 0:00 /usr/sbin/lpd
40 psf S 0:00 selection -t ms
42 v02 S 0:01 -bash
43 v03 S 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty3
44 v04 S 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty4
45 v05 S 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty5
46 v06 S 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty6
41 v01 S 0:01 -bash
140 v01 R 0:00 ps -a
This is a relatively short output showing a very lightly loaded
system. Most of the entries are the Linux operating system kernel and
daemons, as well as serial port getty processes. Only the last two
commands were started by the user who issued the ps command. Of
course, you can't tell who started each process with this output, so
you can combine the -u and -a options (note that you use only one
hyphen, followed by the option letters):
$ ps -au
USER PID %CPU %MEM SIZE RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
root 64 0.0 1.5 41 224 v02 S 22:25 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty2
root 65 0.0 1.5 41 224 v03 S 22:25 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty3
root 66 0.0 1.5 41 224 v04 S 22:25 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty4
root 67 0.0 1.5 41 224 v05 S 22:25 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty5
root 68 0.0 1.5 41 224 v06 S 22:25 0:00 /sbin/agetty 38400 tty6
root 69 0.0 1.5 56 228 s00 S 22:25 0:00 gpm -t mman
root 71 0.3 3.6 388 532 pp0 S 22:26 0:02 -bash
root 155 0.0 1.5 77 220 pp0 R 22:37 0:00 ps -au
tparker 119 0.4 3.5 372 520 v01 S 22:32 0:01 -bash
tparker 132 0.1 2.2 189 324 v01 S 22:33 0:00 vi test
The -au options produce a list with all the same columns as the -u
option, but shows all the processes running on the system. The order
in which you enter the options doesn't matter, so -au is functionally
the same as -ua. When you are adding several options, this can be
handy.
A few other ps command-line options are occasionally useful. The -l
option adds information about which processes started each process
(useful when you want to identify child processes):
$ ps -l
F UID PID PPID PRI NI SIZE RSS WCHAN STAT TTY TIME COMMAND
0 501 41 1 15 0 364 472 114d9c S v01 0:00 -bash
0 501 121 41 29 0 64 208 0 R v01 0:00 ps -l
The PPID (Parent Process ID) column shows which process started that
particular process. You will see in the extract from the preceding
output, that the ps command itself was started by a bash process,
because the shell is the entity that is the parent of all user
commands. You also see that the PPID for the login Bourne shell is PID
"1", which is the init process of the operating system. (If you think
about what this means, it implies that if init ever terminates, all
other processes die, too. Simply put, when init dies, the entire
system is off.)
______________________________________________________________
NOTE: The Linux version of the ps command has a few idiosyncrasies.
The hyphen before any options is not strictly necessary, so ps u
would work in the same manner as ps -u. However, because UNIX
convention (and most UNIX versions) require hyphens, you should use
them.
______________________________________________________________
For System Administrators
Most system administrators get by with three versions of the ps
command (when logged in as root). To display information about the
system as a whole, the following command lines show practically
everything there is to know about processes:
ps -ax
ps -aux
ps -le
The meaning of the primary columns in the output from the two commands
has been mentioned earlier in this section. The rest of the columns
are either evident from their shortform or not that important. For
complete information, see the ps man page (which is not entirely
accurate or complete, unfortunately).
Using kill
Occasionally you will find a process that has locked up a terminal or
isn't doing anything, which is generally referred to as a "hung"
process. Sometimes a user will have a process that doesn't terminate
properly (especially common with programmers). These are "run-away"
processes. In both cases, the only way to get rid of the process and
restore some normality to the system is to terminate the process
entirely. This is done with the kill command.
To use kill, you have to have access to another window or console
where you can issue commands. If your terminal is completely locked
up, you have to find another one to log in on. As a user, you can only
kill your own processes—you cannot affect any process another
user or the system is running. As root, you can terminate any process
with the kill command.
In order to use the kill command, you need the process ID number (PID)
of the process to be terminated. You have to obtain the PID with the
ps command and note the PID. Next, use the kill command with the PID
as an argument. For example, the following terminal session shows a
user process started by Walter called bad_prog, that has hung up and
needs to be killed. The PID is obtained by displaying all of the
system's processes with their user names (we've cut the other lines
from the ps command output for simplicity's sake):
$ ps -u
USER PID %CPU %MEM SIZE RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
walter 561 0.1 6.8 364 472 v01 S 13:19 0:01 -bash
walter 598 9.3 4.1 2736 472 v01 R 15:26 2:01 bad_prog
$ kill 598
When you issue the kill command, you don't get any return message if
it works properly. The only way to verify that the process termination
has been properly conducted is to issue another ps command and look
for the PID or process name.
killing Child Processes
Because some processes spawn child processes with different PIDs, you
must be sure to check that all the child processes are terminated. The
best way to do this is to watch the names of the executing processes
for a few minutes to ensure the child isn't dormant, only to return
later. This problem usually happens when the child processes are being
generated by a parent. You should check the PPID column (use the ps -l
option) to see which process is the parent and terminate that.
______________________________________________________________
NOTE: When you are killing processes and logged in as root, make
sure you type the correct PID or you may inadvertently terminate
another process. Check the PID carefully! Also, don't kill any
system processes unless you know what they do and why they need to
be terminated.
______________________________________________________________
If the process doesn't terminate properly with the kill command, you
need to use sterner measures. The kill command actually has several
levels of operation. When issued with no arguments other than the PID,
kill tries to gracefully terminate the process (which means any open
files are closed, and generally, kill is polite to the process). If
this doesn't work, you should use the -9 option, which is a little
more forceful in its attempt to terminate the process. For example, to
forcefully terminate the process with PID 726, issue the following
command:
kill -9 726
If that doesn't work, then the process may be unkillable. This does
happen occasionally with Linux, and the only solution is to shut down
and reboot the machine.
killing Rights
To help prevent a user from killing another user's processes, ps
checks for the process owner. If a user tries to kill another user's
process, a message like this one is displayed:
kill: - Not owner
The superuser doesn't get this message because the superuser login can
kill anything.
Summary
This chapter has shown you how to obtain listings of the processes
currently executing on your Linux system and how to terminate them
when they require it. Although you may not have to use this knowledge
often, every operating system has occasions where something gets out
of hand and you need to control it. The problems multiply as the
number of users increases. Instead of rebooting the Linux system,
process commands enable you to correct the problem without terminating
the operating system.
--
Enjoy Linux!
-----It's FREE!-----
※ 修改:.netiscpu 于 Jul 25 06:02:04 修改本文.[FROM: mtlab.hit.edu.cn]
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