Linux 版 (精华区)
发信人: netiscpu (说不如做), 信区: Linux
标 题: [B] Red Hat Linux Unleashed (45)
发信站: 紫 丁 香 (Sat Jul 25 05:02:46 1998), 转信
Network Security
_________________________________________________________________
o Weak Passwords
o File Security
o Modem Access
# Callback Modems
# Modem-Line Problems
# How a Modem Handles a Call
o UUCP
o Local Area Network Access
o Tracking Intruders
o Preparing for the Worst
o Summary
_________________________________________________________________
45
Network Security
Covering everything about security would take several volumes of
books, so we can only look at the basics. We can take a quick look at
the primary defenses you need in order to protect yourself from
unauthorized access through telephone lines (modems), as well as some
aspects of network connections. We won't bother with complex solutions
that are difficult to implement because they can require a
considerable amount of knowledge and they apply only to specific
configurations.
Instead, we can look at the basic methods of buttoning up your Linux
system, most of which are downright simple and effective. Many system
administrators either don't know what is necessary to protect a system
from unauthorized access, or they have discounted the chances of a
break-in happening to them. It happens with alarming frequency, so
take the industry's advice: Don't take chances. Protect your system.
In this chapter, we look at the following topics:
* File permissions
* Protecting modem access
* UUCP's holes
* Tracking an intruder
* What to do if you get broken into
Weak Passwords
Believe it or not, the most common access method of breaking into a
system through a network, over a modem connection, or sitting in front
of a terminal is through weak passwords. Weak (which means easily
guessable) passwords are very common. When these are used by system
users, even the best security systems can't protect against intrusion.
If you're managing a system that has several users, you should
implement a policy requiring users to set their passwords at regular
intervals (usually six to eight weeks is a good idea), and to use
non-English words. The best passwords are combinations of letters and
numbers that are not in the dictionary.
Sometimes, though, having a policy against weak passwords isn't
enough. You might want to consider forcing stronger password usage by
using public domain or commercial software that checks potential
passwords for susceptibility. These packages are often available in
source code, so they can be compiled for Linux without a problem.
File Security
Security begins at the file permission level and should be carried out
carefully. Whether you want to protect a file from snooping by an
unauthorized invader or another user, you should carefully set your
umask (file creation mask) to set your files for maximum security.
Of course, this is really only important if you have more than one
user on the system or have to consider hiding information from certain
users. However, if you are on a system with several users, consider
forcing umask settings for everyone and set read-and-write permissions
only for the user, and no permissions for everyone else. This is as
good as you can get with file security.
For very sensitive files (such as accounting or employee information),
consider encrypting them with a simple utility. There are many such
programs available. Most require only a password to trigger the
encryption or decryption.
Modem Access
For most Linux users, protecting your system from access through an
Internet gateway isn't important because few users have an Internet
access machine directly connected to their Linux boxes. Instead, the
concern should be about protecting yourself from break-in through the
most accessible method open to system invaders: modems.
Modems are the most commonly used interface into every Linux system
(unless you're running completely stand-alone, or on a closed
network). Modems are used for remote user access, as well as for
network and Internet access. Securing your system's modem lines from
intrusion is simple and effective enough to stop casual browsers.
Callback Modems
The safest technique to prevent unauthorized access through modems is
to employ a callback modem. A callback modem lets a user connect to
the system as usual; it then hangs up and consults a list of valid
users and their telephone numbers before calling the user back to
establish the call. Callback modems are quite expensive, so this is
not a practical solution for many systems.
Callback modems have some problems, too, especially if users change
locations frequently. Also, callback modems are vulnerable to abuse
because of call-forwarding features of modern telephone switches.
Modem-Line Problems
The typical telephone modem can be a source of problems if it doesn't
hang up the line properly after a user session has finished. Most
often, this is a problem with the wiring of the modem or the
configuration setup.
Wiring problems might sound trivial, but there are many systems with
hand-wired modem cables that don't properly control all the pins. In
this case, the system can be left with a modem session not properly
closed and a logout not completed. Anyone calling that modem continues
where the last user ended.
To prevent this kind of problem, make sure the cables connecting the
modem to the Linux machine are complete. Replace hand-wired cables
that you are unsure of with properly constructed commercial ones.
Also, watch the modem when a few sessions are completed to make sure
the line hangs up properly.
Configuration problems can also prevent line hangups. Check the modem
documentation to make sure your Linux script can hang up the telephone
line when the connection is broken. This is seldom a problem with the
most commonly used modems, but off-brand modems that do not have true
compatibility with a supported modem can cause problems. Again, watch
the modem after a call to make sure it is hanging up properly.
One way to prevent break-ins is to remove the modem from the circuit
when it's not needed. Because access through modems by unwanted
intruders is usually attempted after normal business hours, you can
control the serial ports that the modems are connected to by using
cron to change the status of the ports or disable the ports completely
after-hours.
For most systems this is not practical, but for many businesses it is
a simple-enough solution. If late-night access is required, one or two
modem lines out of a pool can be kept active. Some larger systems keep
a dedicated number for the after-hours modem line, usually different
from the normal modem line numbers.
How a Modem Handles a Call
In order for a user to gain access to Linux through a modem line, the
system uses the getty process. The getty process itself is spawned by
the init process for each serial line. The getty program is
responsible for getting user names, setting communications parameters
(baud rate and terminal mode, for example), and controlling time-outs.
With Linux, the serial and multiport board ports are controlled by the
/etc/ttys file.
Some Linux systems enable a dialup password system to be implemented.
This forces a user calling on a modem to enter a second password that
validates access through the modem. If it is supported on your system,
dialup passwords are usually set in a file called /etc/dialups.
The Linux system uses the file /etc/dialups to supply a list of ports
that offer dialup passwords, while a second file (such as
/etc/d_passwd) has the passwords for the modem lines. Access is
determined by the type of shell utilized by the user. The same
procedure can be applied to UUCP access.
UUCP
The UUCP program was designed with good security in mind. However, it
was designed many years ago, and security requirements have changed
considerably since then. A number of security problems have been found
over the years with UUCP, many of which have been addressed with
changes and patches to the system. Still, UUCP requires some system
administration attention to ensure that it is working properly and
securely.
If you don't plan to use UUCP, remove the uucp user entirely from the
/etc/password file or provide a strong password that can't be guessed
(putting an asterisk as the first character of the password field in
/etc/passwd effectively disables the login). Removing uucp from the
/etc/passwd file won't affect anything else on the Linux system.
You should set permissions to be as restrictive as possible in all
UUCP directories (usually /usr/lib/uucp, /usr/spool/uucp, and
/usr/spool/uucppublic). Permissions for these directories tend to be
lax with most systems, so use chown, chmod, and chgrp to restrict
access only to the uucp login. The group and user name for all files
should be set to uucp. Check the file permissions regularly.
UUCP uses several files to control who is allowed in. These files
(/usr/lib/uucp/Systems and /usr/lib/uucp/Permissions, for example)
should be owned and accessible only by the uucp login. This prevents
modification by an intruder with another login name.
The /usr/spool/uucppublic directory can be a common target for
break-ins because it requires read and write access by all systems
accessing it. To safeguard this directory, create two subdirectories:
one for receiving files and another for sending files. Further
subdirectories can be created for each system that is on the valid
user list, if you want to go that far.
Local Area Network Access
Most LANs are not thought of as a security problem, but they tend to
be one of the easiest methods of getting into a system. However, if
any of the machines on the network has a weak access point, all of the
machines on the network can be accessed through that machine's network
services. PCs and Macintoshes usually have little security, especially
over call-in modems, so they can be used in a similar manner to access
the network services. A basic rule about LANs is that it's impossible
to have a secure machine on the same network as nonsecure machines.
Therefore, any solution for one machine must be implemented for all
machines on the network.
The ideal LAN security system forces proper authentication of any
connection, including the machine name and the user name. A few
software problems contribute to authentication difficulties. The
concept of a trusted host, which is implemented in Linux, enables a
machine to connect without hassle, assuming its name is in a file on
the host (Linux) machine. A password isn't even required in most
cases! All an intruder has to do is determine the name of a trusted
host and then connect with that name. Carefully check the
/etc/hosts.equiv, /etc/hosts, and .rhosts files for entries that might
cause problems.
One network authentication solution that is now widely used is
Kerberos, a method originally developed at MIT. Kerberos uses a "very
secure" host, which acts as an authentication server. Using encryption
in the messages between machines to prevent intruders from examining
headers, Kerberos authenticates all messages over the network.
Because of the nature of most networks, most Linux systems are
vulnerable to a knowledgeable intruder. There are literally hundreds
of known problems with utilities in the TCP/IP family. A good first
step to securing a system is to disable the TCP/IP services you don't
use at all because other people can use them to access your system.
Tracking Intruders
Many intruders are curious about your system but don't want to do any
damage. They might get on your system with some regularity, snoop
around, play a few games, and leave without changing anything. This
makes it hard to know that you are being broken into, and it leaves
you at the intruder's mercy should he decide he wants to cause damage
or use your system to springboard to another.
You can track users of your system quite easily by invoking auditing,
a process that logs every time a user connects and disconnects from
your system. Not all Linux versions support auditing, so consult your
man pages and system documentation for more information.
If you do rely on auditing, you should scan the logs often. It might
be worthwhile to write a quick summary script program that totals the
amount of time each user is on the system so that you can watch for
anomalies and numbers that don't mesh with your personal knowledge of
the user's connect times. A simple shell script to analyze the log can
be written in gawk. In addition, some audit reporting systems are
available in the public domain.
Preparing for the Worst
Assuming someone does break in, what can you do? Obviously, backups of
the system are helpful because they let you recover any damaged or
deleted files. But beyond that, what should you do?
First, find out how the invader got in, and secure that method of
access so it can't be used again. If you're not sure of the access
method, close down all modems and terminals and carefully check all
the configuration and setup files for holes. There has to be one, or
the invader couldn't have gotten in. Also check passwords and user
lists for weak or outdated material.
If you are the victim of repeated attacks, consider enabling an audit
system to keep track of how intruders get in and what they do. As soon
as you see an intruder log in, force him off.
Finally, if the break-ins continue, call the local authorities.
Breaking into computer systems (whether in a large corporation or a
home) is illegal in most countries, and the authorities usually know
how to trace the users back to their calling points. They're breaking
into your system and shouldn't get away with it!
Summary
Following the simple steps outlined in this chapter will give you
enough security to protect your systems against all but the most
determined and knowledgeable crackers. You can't do any harm with the
steps mentioned, so you may as well perform them for all Linux systems
that have modems or network connections.
--
Enjoy Linux!
-----It's FREE!-----
※ 修改:.netiscpu 于 Jul 25 06:03:53 修改本文.[FROM: mtlab.hit.edu.cn]
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