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发信人: Systems (Queen Victoria Died), 信区: English
标 题: The Anglo Saxons--ALFRED 'THE GREAT'
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年04月06日18:08:43 星期天), 站内信件
ALFRED 'THE GREAT' (r. 871-899)
Born at Wantage, Berkshire, in 849, Alfred was the fifth son of Aethelwulf,
king of the West Saxons. At their father's behest and by mutual agreement, A
lfred's elder brothers succeeded to the kingship in turn, rather than endang
er the kingdom by passing it to under-age children at a time when the countr
y was threatened by worsening Viking raids from Denmark.
Since the 790s, the Vikings had been using fast mobile armies, numbering tho
usands of men embarked in shallow-draught longships, to raid the coasts and
inland waters of England for plunder. Such raids were evolving into permanen
t Danish settlements; in 867, the Vikings seized York and established their
own kingdom in the southern part of Northumbria. The Vikings overcame two ot
her major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, East Anglia and Mercia, and their kings were
either tortured to death or fled. Finally, in 870 the Danes attacked the on
ly remaining independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom, Wessex, whose forces were comm
anded by King Aethelred and his younger brother Alfred. At the battle of Ash
down in 871, Alfred routed the Viking army in a fiercely fought uphill assau
lt. However, further defeats followed for Wessex and Alfred's brother died.
As king of Wessex at the age of 21, Alfred (reigned 871-99) was a strongmind
ed but highly strung battle veteran at the head of remaining resistance to t
he Vikings in southern England. In early 878, the Danes led by King Guthrum
seized Chippenham in Wiltshire in a lightning strike and used it as a secure
base from which to devastate Wessex. Local people either surrendered or esc
aped (Hampshire people fled to the Isle of Wight), and the West Saxons were
reduced to hit and run attacks seizing provisions when they could. With only
his royal bodyguard, a small army of thegns (the king's followers) and Aeth
elnoth earldorman of Somerset as his ally, Alfred withdrew to the Somerset t
idal marshes in which he had probably hunted as a youth. (It was during this
time that Alfred, in his preoccupation with the defence of his kingdom, all
egedly burned some cakes which he had been asked to look after; the incident
was a legend dating from early twelfth century chroniclers.)
A resourceful fighter, Alfred reassessed his strategy and adopted the Danes'
tactics by building a fortified base at Athelney in the Somerset marshes an
d summoning a mobile army of men from Wiltshire, Somerset and part of Hampsh
ire to pursue guerrilla warfare against the Danes. In May 878, Alfred's army
defeated the Danes at the battle of Edington. According to his contemporary
biographer Bishop Asser, 'Alfred attacked the whole pagan army fighting fer
ociously in dense order, and by divine will eventually won the victory, made
great slaughter among them, and pursued them to their fortress (Chippenham)
... After fourteen days the pagans were brought to the extreme depths of de
spair by hunger, cold and fear, and they sought peace'. This unexpected vict
ory proved to be the turning point in Wessex's battle for survival.
Realising that he could not drive the Danes out of the rest of England, Alfr
ed concluded peace with them in the treaty of Wedmore. King Guthrum was conv
erted to Christianity with Alfred as godfather and many of the Danes returne
d to East Anglia where they settled as farmers. In 886, Alfred negotiated a
partition treaty with the Danes, in which a frontier was demarcated along th
e Roman Watling Street and northern and eastern England came under the juris
diction of the Danes - an area known as 'Danelaw'. Alfred therefore gained c
ontrol of areas of West Mercia and Kent which had been beyond the boundaries
of Wessex. To consolidate alliances against the Danes, Alfred married one o
f his daughters, Aethelflaed, to the ealdorman of Mercia -Alfred himself had
married Eahlswith, a Mercian noblewoman - and another daughter, Aelfthryth,
to the count of Flanders, a strong naval power at a time when the Vikings w
ere settling in eastern England.
The Danish threat remained, and Alfred reorganised the Wessex defences in re
cognition that efficient defence and economic prosperity were interdependent
. First, he organised his army (the thegns, and the existing militia known a
s the fyrd) on a rota basis, so he could raise a 'rapid reaction force' to d
eal with raiders whilst still enabling his thegns and peasants to tend their
farms.
Second, Alfred started a building programme of well-defended settlements acr
oss southern England. These were fortified market places ('borough' comes fr
om the Old English burh, meaning fortress); by deliberate royal planning, se
ttlers received plots and in return manned the defences in times of war. (Su
ch plots in London under Alfred's rule in the 880s shaped the streetplan whi
ch still exists today between Cheapside and the Thames.) This obligation req
uired careful recording in what became known as 'the Burghal Hidage', which
gave details of the building and manning of Wessex and Mercian burhs accordi
ng to their size, the length of their ramparts and the number of men needed
to garrison them. Centred round Alfred's royal palace in Winchester, this ne
twork of burhs with strongpoints on the main river routes was such that no p
art of Wessex was more than 20 miles from the refuge of one of these settlem
ents. Together with a navy of new fast ships built on Alfred's orders, south
ern England now had a defence in depth against Danish raiders.
Alfred's concept of kingship extended beyond the administration of the triba
l kingdom of Wessex into a broader context. A religiously devout and pragmat
ic man who learnt Latin in his late thirties, he recognised that the general
deterioration in learning and religion caused by the Vikings' destruction o
f monasteries (the centres of the rudimentary education network) had serious
implications for rulership. For example, the poor standards in Latin had le
d to a decline in the use of the charter as an instrument of royal governmen
t to disseminate the king's instructions and legislation. In one of his pref
aces, Alfred wrote 'so general was its [Latin] decay in England that there w
ere very few on this side of the Humber who could understand their rituals i
n English or translate a letter from Latin into English ... so few that I ca
nnot remember a single one south of the Thames when I came to the throne.'
To improve literacy, Alfred arranged, and took part in, the translation (by
scholars from Mercia) from Latin into Anglo-Saxon of a handful of books he t
hought it 'most needful for men to know, and to bring it to pass ... if we h
ave the peace, that all the youth now in England ... may be devoted to learn
ing'. These books covered history, philosophy and Gregory the Great's 'Pasto
ral Care' (a handbook for bishops), and copies of these books were sent to a
ll the bishops of the kingdom. Alfred was patron of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicl
e (which was copied and supplemented up to 1154), a patriotic history of the
English from the Wessex viewpoint designed to inspire its readers and celeb
rate Alfred and his monarchy.
Like other West Saxon kings, Alfred established a legal code; he assembled t
he laws of Offa and other predecessors, and of the kingdoms of Mercia and Ke
nt, adding his own administrative regulations to form a definitive body of A
nglo-Saxon law. 'I ... collected these together and ordered to be written ma
ny of them which our forefathers observed, those which I liked; and many of
those which I did not like I rejected with the advice of my councillors ...
For I dared not presume to set in writing at all many of my own, because it
was unknown to me what would please those who should come after us ... Then
I ... showed those to all my councillors, and they then said that they were
all pleased to observe them' (Laws of Alfred, c.885-99).
By the 890s, Alfred's charters and coinage (which he had also reformed, exte
nding its minting to the burhs he had founded) referred to him as 'king of t
he English', and Welsh kings sought alliances with him. Alfred died in 899,
aged 50, and was buried in Winchester, the burial place of the West Saxon ro
yal family.
By stopping the Viking advance and consolidating his territorial gains, Alfr
ed had started the process by which his successors eventually extended their
power over the other Anglo-Saxon kings; the ultimate unification of Anglo-S
axon England was to be led by Wessex. It is for his valiant defence of his k
ingdom against a stronger enemy, for securing peace with the Vikings and for
his farsighted reforms in the reconstruction of Wessex and beyond, that Alf
red - alone of all the English kings and queens - is known as 'the Great'.
--
We are angels with but one wing.
To fly we must embrace each other.
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