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发信人: Systems (Queen Victoria Died), 信区: English
标 题: The Normans--WILLIAM I 'THE CONQUEROR'
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年04月06日18:21:48 星期天), 站内信件
WILLIAM I 'THE CONQUEROR' (r. 1066-1087)
Born around 1028, William was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of Norma
ndy, and Herleve (also known as Arlette), daughter of a tanner in Falaise. K
nown as 'William the Bastard' to his contemporaries, his illegitimacy shaped
his career when he was young. On his father's death in 1035, William was re
cognised by his family as the heir - an exception to the general rule that i
llegitimacy barred succession. His great uncle looked after the Duchy during
William's minority, and his overlord, King Henry I of France, knighted him
at the age of 15.
From 1047 onwards, William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy
involving his kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attem
pted invasions by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French
forces were defeated at the Battle of Mortemer) and 1057. William's militar
y successes and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda,
daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. At the time of his invasion of Eng
land, William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler
and administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect out
side his duchy.
William's claim to the English throne was based on his assertion that, in 10
51, Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne (he was a distant cousi
n) and that Harold II - having sworn in 1064 to uphold William's right to su
cceed to that throne - was therefore a usurper. Furthermore, William had the
support of Emperor Henry IV and papal approval. William took seven months t
o prepare his invasion force, using some 600 transport ships to carry around
7,000 men (including 2,000-3,000 cavalry) across the Channel. On 28 Septemb
er 1066, with a favourable wind, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and, w
ithin a few days, raised fortifications at Hastings. Having defeated an earl
ier invasion by the King of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near Yor
k in late September, Harold undertook a forced march south, covering 250 mil
es in some nine days to meet the new threat, gathering inexperienced reinfor
cements to replenish his exhausted veterans as he marched.
At the Battle of Senlac (near Hastings) on 14 October, Harold's weary and un
der-strength army faced William's cavalry (part of the forces brought across
the Channel) supported by archers. Despite their exhaustion, Harold's troop
s were equal in number (they included the best infantry in Europe equipped w
ith their terrible two-handled battle axes) and they had the battlefield adv
antage of being based on a ridge above the Norman positions.
The first uphill assaults by the Normans failed and a rumour spread that Wil
liam had been killed; William rode among the ranks raising his helmet to sho
w he was still alive. The battle was close-fought: a chronicler described th
e Norman counter-attacks and the Saxon defence as 'one side attacking with a
ll mobility, the other withstanding as though rooted to the soil'. Three of
William's horses were killed under him.
William skilfully co-ordinated his archers and cavalry, both of which the En
glish forces lacked. During a Norman assault, Harold was killed - hit by an
arrow and then mowed down by the sword of a mounted knight. Two of his broth
ers were also killed. The demoralised English forces fled. (In 1070, as pena
nce, William had an abbey built on the site of the battle, with the high alt
ar occupying the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of Battle Abbey, and the
town of Battle, which grew up around it, remain.)
William was crowned on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey. Three months
later, he was confident enough to return to Normandy leaving two joint rege
nts (one of whom was his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, who was later t
o commission the Bayeux Tapestry) behind to administer the kingdom. However,
it took William six years to consolidate his conquest, and even then he had
to face constant plotting and fighting on both sides of the Channel. In 106
8, Harold's sons raided the south-west coast of England (dealt with by Willi
am's local commanders), and there were uprisings in the Welsh Marches, Devon
and Cornwall. William appointed earls who, in Wales and in all parts of the
kingdom, undertook to guard the threatened frontiers and maintain internal
security in return for land.
In 1069, the Danes, in alliance with Prince Edgar the Aetheling (Ethelred's
great-grandson) and other English nobles, invaded the north and took York. T
aking personal charge, and pausing only to deal with the rising at Stafford,
William drove the Danes back to their ships on the Humber. In a harsh campa
ign lasting into 1070, William systematically devastated Mercia and Northumb
ria to deprive the Danes of their supplies and prevent recovery of English r
esistance. Churches and monasteries were burnt, and agricultural land was la
id to waste, creating a famine for the unarmed and mostly peasant population
which lasted at least nine years. Although the Danes were bribed to leave t
he north, King Sweyn of Denmark and his ships threatened the east coast (in
alliance with various English, including Hereward the Wake) until a treaty o
f peace was concluded in June 1070.
Further north, where the boundary with Scotland was unclear, King Malcolm II
I was encroaching into England. Yet again, William moved swiftly and moved l
and and sea forces north to invade Scotland. The Treaty of Abernethy in 1072
marked a truce, which was reinforced by Malcolm's eldest son being accepted
as a hostage.
William consolidated his conquest by starting a castle-building campaign in
strategic areas. Originally these castles were wooden towers on earthen 'mot
tes' (mounds) with a bailey (defensive area) surrounded by earth ramparts, b
ut many were later rebuilt in stone. By the end of William's reign over 80 c
astles had been built throughout his kingdom, as a permanent reminder of the
new Norman feudal order.
William's wholesale confiscation of land from English nobles and their heirs
(many nobles had died at the battles of Stamford Bridge and Senlac) enabled
him to recruit and retain an army, by demanding military duties in exchange
for land tenancy granted to Norman, French and Flemish allies. He created u
p to 180 'honours' (lands scattered through shires, with a castle as the gov
erning centre), and in return had some 5,000 knights at his disposal to repr
ess rebellions and pursue campaigns; the knights were augmented by mercenari
es and English infantry from the Anglo-Saxon militia, raised from local levi
es. William also used the fyrd, the royal army - a military arrangement whic
h had survived the Conquest. The King's tenants-in-chief in turn created kni
ghts under obligation to them and for royal duties (this was called subinfeu
dation), with the result that private armies centred around private castles
were created - these were to cause future problems of anarchy for unfortunat
e or weak kings. By the end of William's reign, a small group of the King's
tenants had acquired about half of England's landed wealth. Only two English
men still held large estates directly from the King. A foreign aristocracy h
ad been imposed as the new governing class.
The expenses of numerous campaigns, together with an economic slump (caused
by the shifts in landed wealth, and the devastation of northern England for
military and political reasons), prompted William to order a full-scale inve
stigation into the actual and potential wealth of the kingdom to maximise ta
x revenues. The Domesday survey was prompted by ignorance of the state of la
nd holding in England, as well as the result of the costs of defence measure
s in England and renewed war in France. The scope, speed, efficiency and com
pletion of this survey was remarkable for its time and resulted in the two-v
olume Domesday Book of 1086, which still exists today. William needed to ens
ure the direct loyalty of his feudal tenants. The 1086 Oath of Salisbury was
a gathering of William's 170 tenants-in-chief and other important landowner
s who took an oath of fealty to William.
William's reach extended elsewhere into the Church and the legal system. Fre
nch superseded the vernacular (Anglo-Saxon). Personally devout, William used
his bishops to carry out administrative duties. Lanfranc, Archbishop of Can
terbury from 1070, was a first-class administrator who assisted in governmen
t when William was absent in France, and who reorganised the Church in Engla
nd. Having established the primacy of his archbishopric over that of York, a
nd with William's approval, Lanfranc excommunicated rebels, and set up Churc
h or spiritual courts to deal with ecclesiastical matters. Lanfranc also rep
laced English bishops and abbots (some of whom had already been removed by t
he Council of Winchester under papal authority) with Norman or French clergy
to reduce potential political resistance. In addition, Canterbury and Durha
m Cathedrals were rebuilt and some of the bishops' sees were moved to urban
centres.
At his coronation, William promised to uphold existing laws and customs. The
Anglo-Saxon shire courts and 'hundred' courts (which administered defence a
nd tax, as well as justice matters) remained intact, as did regional variati
ons and private Anglo-Saxon jurisdictions. To strengthen royal justice, Will
iam relied on sheriffs (previously smaller landowners, but replaced by influ
ential nobles) to supervise the administration of justice in existing county
courts, and sent members of his own court to conduct important trials. Howe
ver, the introduction of Church courts, the mix of Norman/Roman law and the
differing customs led to a continuing complex legal framework. More severe f
orest laws reinforced William's conversion of the New Forest into a vast Roy
al deer reserve. These laws caused great resentment, and to English chronicl
ers the New Forest became a symbol of William's greed. Nevertheless the King
maintained peace and order. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1087 declared 'he
was a very stern and violent man, so no one dared do anything contrary to hi
s will ... Amongst other things the good security he made in this country is
not to be forgotten.'
William spent the last months of his reign in Normandy, fighting a counter-o
ffensive in the French Vexin territory against King Philip's annexation of o
utlying Normandy territory. Before his death on 9 September 1087, William di
vided his 'Anglo-Norman' state between his sons. (The scene was set for cent
uries of expensive commitments by successive English monarchs to defend thei
r inherited territories in France.) William bequeathed Normandy as he had pr
omised to his eldest son Robert, despite their bitter differences (Robert ha
d sided with his father's enemies in Normandy, and even wounded and defeated
his father in a battle there in 1079). His son, William Rufus, was to succe
ed William as King of England, and the third remaining son, Henry, was left
5,000 pounds in silver. William was buried in his abbey foundation of St Ste
phen at Caen. Desecrated by Huguenots (1562) and Revolutionaries (1793), the
burial place of the first Norman king of England is marked by a simple ston
e slab.
--
We are angels with but one wing.
To fly we must embrace each other.
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