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发信人: Systems (Queen Victoria Died), 信区: English
标 题: The Plantagenets--EDWARD I
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年04月06日18:29:45 星期天), 站内信件
EDWARD I (r. 1272-1307)
Born in June 1239 at Westminster, Edward was named by his father Henry III a
fter the last Anglo Saxon king (and his father's favourite saint), Edward th
e Confessor. Edward's parents were renowned for their patronage of the arts
(his mother, Eleanor of Provence, encouraged Henry III to spend money on the
arts, which included the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey and a still-extant
magnificent shrine to house the body of Edward the Confessor), and Edward r
eceived a disciplined education - reading and writing in Latin and French, w
ith training in the arts, sciences and music.
In 1254, Edward travelled to Spain for an arranged marriage at the age of 15
to 9-year-old Eleanor of Castile. Just before Edward's marriage, Henry III
gave him the duchy of Gascony, one of the few remnants of the once vast Fren
ch possessions of the English Angevin kings. Gascony was part of a package w
hich included parts of Ireland, the Channel Islands and the King's lands in
Wales to provide an income for Edward. Edward then spent a year in Gascony,
studying its administration.
Edward spent his young adulthood learning harsh lessons from Henry III's fai
lures as a king, culminating in a civil war in which he fought to defend his
father. Henry's ill-judged and expensive intervention in Sicilian affairs (
lured by the Pope's offer of the Sicilian crown to Henry's younger son) fail
ed, and aroused the anger of powerful barons including Henry's brother-in-la
w Simon de Montfort. Bankrupt and threatened with excommunication, Henry was
forced to agree to the Provisions of Oxford in 1258, under which his debts
were paid in exchange for substantial reforms; a Great Council of 24, partly
nominated by the barons, assumed the functions of the King's Council.
Henry repudiated the Provisions in 1261 and sought the help of the French ki
ng Louis IX (later known as St Louis for his piety and other qualities). Thi
s was the only time Edward was tempted to side with his charismatic and poli
tically ruthless godfather Simon de Montfort - he supported holding a Parlia
ment in his father's absence.
However, by the time Louis IX decided to side with Henry in the dispute and
civil war broke out in England in 1263, Edward had returned to his father's
side and became de Montfort's greatest enemy. After winning the battle of Le
wes in 1264 (after which Edward became a hostage to ensure his father abided
by the terms of the peace), de Montfort summoned the Great Parliament in 12
65 - this was the first time cities and burghs sent representatives to the p
arliament. (Historians differ as to whether de Montfort was an enlightened l
iberal reformer or an unscrupulous opportunist using any means to advance hi
mself.)
In May 1265, Edward escaped from tight supervision whilst hunting. On 4 Augu
st, Edward and his allies outmanoeuvred de Montfort in a savage battle at Ev
esham; de Montfort predicted his own defeat and death 'let us commend our so
uls to God, because our bodies are theirs ... they are approaching wisely, t
hey learned this from me.' With the ending of the civil war, Edward worked h
ard at social and political reconciliation between his father and the rebels
, and by 1267 the realm had been pacified.
In April 1270 Parliament agreed an unprecedented levy of one-twentieth of ev
ery citizen's goods and possessions to finance Edward's Crusade to the Holy
Lands. Edward left England in August 1270 to join the highly respected Frenc
h king Louis IX on Crusade. At a time when popes were using the crusading id
eal to further their own political ends in Italy and elsewhere, Edward and K
ing Louis were the last crusaders in the medieval tradition of aiming to rec
over the Holy Lands. Louis died of the plague in Tunis before Edward's arriv
al, and the French forces were bought off from pursuing their campaign. Edwa
rd decided to continue regardless: 'by the blood of God, though all my fello
w soldiers and countrymen desert me, I will enter Acre ... and I will keep m
y word and my oath to the death'.
Edward arrived in Acre in May 1271 with 1,000 knights; his crusade was to pr
ove an anticlimax. Edward's small force limited him to the relief of Acre an
d a handful of raids, and divisions amongst the international force of Chris
tian Crusaders led to Edward's compromise truce with the Baibars. In June 12
72, Edward survived a murder attempt by an Assassin (an order of Shi'ite Mus
lims) and left for Sicily later in the year. He was never to return on crusa
de.
Meanwhile, Henry III died on 16 November 1272. Edward succeeded to the thron
e without opposition - given his track record in military ability and his pr
oven determination to give peace to the country, enhanced by his magnified e
xploits on crusade. In Edward's absence, a proclamation in his name delcared
that he had succeeded by hereditary right, and the barons swore allegeiance
to him. Edward finally arrived in London in August 1274 and was crowned at
Westminster Abbey. Aged 35, he was a veteran warrior ('the best lance in all
the world', according to contemporaries), a leader with energy and vision,
and with a formidable temper.
Edward was determined to enforce English kings' claims to primacy in the Bri
tish Isles. The first part of his reign was dominated by Wales. At that time
, Wales consisted of a number of disunited small Welsh princedoms; the South
Welsh princes were in uneasy alliance with the Marcher lords (feudal earldo
ms and baronies set up by the Norman kings to protect the English border aga
inst Welsh raids) against the Northern Welsh based in the rocky wilds of Gwy
nedd, under the strong leadership of Llywelyn ap Gruffyd, Prince of Gwynedd.
In 1247, under the Treaty of Woodstock, Llywelyn had agreed that he held No
rth Wales in fee to the English king. By 1272, Llywelyn had taken advantage
of the English civil wars to consolidate his position, and the Peace of Mont
gomery (1267) had confirmed his title as Prince of Wales and recognised his
conquests.
However, Llywelyn maintained that the rights of his principality were 'entir
ely separate from the rights' of England; he did not attend Edward's coronat
ion and refused to do homage. Finally, in 1277 Edward decided to fight Llywe
lyn 'as a rebel and disturber of the peace', and quickly defeated him. War b
roke out again in 1282 when Llywelyn joined his brother David in rebellion.
Edward's determination, military experience and skilful use of ships brought
from England for deployment along the North Welsh coast, drove Llywelyn bac
k into the mountains of North Wales. The death of Llywelyn in a chance battl
e in 1282 and the subsequent execution of his brother David effectively ende
d attempts at Welsh independence.
Under the Statute of Wales of 1284, Wales was brought into the English legal
framework and the shire system was extended. In the same year, a son was bo
rn in Wales to Edward and Queen Eleanor (also named Edward, this future king
was proclaimed the first English Prince of Wales in 1301). The Welsh campai
gn had produced one of the largest armies ever assembled by an English king
- some 15,000 infantry (including 9,000 Welsh and a Gascon contingent); the
army was a formidable combination of heavy Anglo-Norman cavalry and Welsh ar
chers, whose longbow skills laid the foundations of later military victories
in France such as that at Agincourt. As symbols of his military strength an
d political authority, Edward spent some £80,000 on a network of castles an
d lesser strongholds in North Wales, employing a work-force of up to 3,500 m
en drawn from all over England. (Some castles, such as Conway and Caernarvon
, remain in their ruined layouts today, as examples of fortresses integrated
with fortified towns.)
Edward's campaign in Wales was based on his determination to ensure peace an
d extend royal authority, and it had broad support in England. Edward saw th
e need to widen support among lesser landowners and the merchants and trader
s of the towns. The campaigns in Wales, France and Scotland left Edward deep
ly in debt, and the taxation required to meet those debts meant enrolling na
tional support for his policies.
To raise money, Edward summoned Parliament - up to 1286 he summoned Parliame
nts twice a year. (The word 'Parliament' came from the 'parley' or talks whi
ch the King had with larger groups of advisers.) In 1295, when money was nee
ded to wage war against Philip of France (who had confiscated the duchy of G
ascony), Edward summoned the most comprehensive assembly ever summoned in En
gland. This became known as the Model Parliament, for it represented various
estates: barons, clergy, and knights and townspeople. By the end of Edward'
s reign, Parliament usually contained representatives of all these estates.
Edward used his royal authority to establish the rights of the Crown at the
expense of traditional feudal privileges, to promote the uniform administrat
ion of justice, to raise income to meet the costs of war and government, and
to codify the legal system. In doing so, his methods emphasised the role of
Parliament and the common law. With the able help of his Chancellor, Robert
Burnell, Bishop of Bath and Wells, Edward introduced much new legislation.
He began by commissioning a thorough survey of local government (with the re
sults entered into documents known as the Hundred Rolls), which not only def
ined royal rights and possessions but also revealed administrative abuses.
The First Statute of Westminster (1275) codified 51 existing laws - many ori
ginating from Magna Carta - covering areas ranging from extortion by royal o
fficers, lawyers and bailiffs, methods of procedure in civil and criminal ca
ses to freedom of elections. Edward's first Parliament also enacted legislat
ion on wool, England's most important export at the time. At the request of
the merchants, Edward was given a customs grant on wool and hides which amou
nted to nearly £10,000 a year. Edward also obtained income from the licence
fees imposed by the Statute of Mortmain (1279), under which gifts of land t
o the Church (often made to evade death duties) had to have a royal licence.
The Statutes of Gloucester (1278) and Quo Warranto (1290) attempted to defin
e and regulate feudal jurisdictions, which were an obstacle to royal authori
ty and to a uniform system of justice for all; the Statute of Winchester (12
85) codified the policing system for preserving public order. Other statutes
had a long-term effect on land law and on the feudal framework in England.
The Second Statute of Westminster (1285) restricted the alienation of land a
nd kept entailed estates within families: tenants were only tenants for life
and not able to sell the property to others. The Third Statute of Westminst
er or Quia Emptores (1290) stopped subinfeudation (in which tenants of land
belonging to the King or to barons subcontracted their properties and relate
d feudal services).
Edward's assertion that the King of Scotland owed feudal allegiance to him,
and the embittered Anglo-Scottish relations leading to war which followed, w
ere to overshadow the rest of Edward's reign in what was to become known as
the 'Great Cause'. Under a treaty of 1174, William the Lion of Scotland had
become the vassal to Henry II, but in 1189 Richard I had absolved William fr
om his allegiance. Intermarriage between the English and Scottish royal hous
es promoted peace between the two countries until the premature death of Ale
xander III in 1286. In 1290, his granddaughter and heiress, Margaret the 'Ma
id of Norway' (daughter of the King of Norway, she was pledged to be married
to Edward's then only surviving son, Edward of Caernarvon), also died. For
Edward, this dynastic blow was made worse by the death in the same year of h
is much-loved wife Eleanor (her body was ceremonially carried from Lincoln t
o Westminster for burial, and a memorial cross erected at every one of the t
welve resting places, including what became known as Charing Cross in London
).
In the absence of an obvious heir to the Scottish throne, the disunited Scot
tish magnates invited Edward to determine the dispute. In order to gain acce
ptance of his authority in reaching a verdict, Edward sought and obtained re
cognition from the rival claimants that he had the 'sovereign lordship of Sc
otland and the right to determine our several pretensions'. In November 1292
, Edward and his 104 assessors gave the whole kingdom to John Balliol or Bal
iol as the claimant closest to the royal line; Balliol duly swore loyalty to
Edward and was crowned at Scone.
John Balliol's position proved difficult. Edward insisted that Scotland was
not independent and he, as sovereign lord, had the right to hear in England
appeals against Balliol's judgements in Scotland. In 1294, Balliol lost auth
ority amongst Scottish magnates by going to Westminster after receiving a su
mmons from Edward; the magnates decided to seek allies in France and conclud
ed the 'Auld Alliance' with France (then at war with England over the duchy
of Gascony) - an alliance which was to influence Scottish history for the ne
xt 300 years. In March 1296, having failed to negotiate a settlement, the En
glish led by Edward sacked the city of Berwick near the River Tweed. Balliol
formally renounced his homage to Edward in April 1296, speaking of 'grievou
s and intolerable injuries ... for instance by summoning us outside our real
m ... as your own whim dictated ... and so ... we renounce the fealty and ho
mage which we have done to you'. Pausing to design and start the rebuilding
of Berwick as the financial capital of the country, Edward's forces overran
remaining Scottish resistance. Scots leaders were taken hostage, and Edinbur
gh Castle, amongst others, was seized. Balliol surrendered his realm and spe
nt the rest of his life in exile in England and Normandy.
Having humiliated Balliol, Edward's insensitive policies in Scotland continu
ed: he appointed a trio of Englishmen to run the country. Edward had the Sto
ne of Scone - also known as the Stone of Destiny - on which Scottish soverei
gns had been crowned removed to London and subsequently placed in the Corona
tion Chair in Westminster Abbey (where it remained until it was returned to
Scotland in 1996). Edward never built stone castles on strategic sites in Sc
otland, as he had done so successfully in Wales - possibly because he did no
t have the funds for another ambitious castle-building programme.
By 1297, Edward was facing the biggest crisis in his reign, and his commitme
nts outweighed his resources. Chronic debts were being incurred by wars agai
nst France, in Flanders, Gascony and Wales as well as Scotland; the clergy w
ere refusing to pay their share of the costs, with the Archbishop of Canterb
ury threatening excommunication; Parliament was reluctant to contribute to E
dward's expensive and unsuccessful military policies; the Earls of Hereford
and Norfolk refused to serve in Gascony, and the barons presented a formal s
tatement of their grievances. In the end, Edward was forced to reconfirm the
Charters (including Magna Carta) to obtain the money he required; the Archb
ishop was eventually suspended in 1306 by the new Gascon Pope Clement V; a t
ruce was declared with France in 1297, followed by a peace treaty in 1303 un
der which the French king restored the duchy of Gascony to Edward.
In Scotland, Edward pursued a series of campaigns from 1298 onwards. William
Wallace had risen in Balliol's name and recovered most of Scotland, before
being defeated by Edward at the battle of Falkirk in 1298. (Wallace escaped,
only to be captured in 1305, allegedly by the treachery of a fellow Scot an
d taken to London, where he was executed.) In 1304, Edward summoned a full P
arliament (which elected Scottish representatives also attended), in which a
rrangements for the settlement of Scotland were made. The new government in
Scotland featured a Council, which included Robert the Bruce. Bruce unexpect
edly rebelled in 1306 by killing a fellow counsellor and was crowned king of
Scotland at Scone. Despite his failing health, Edward was carried north to
pursue another campaign, but he died en route at Burgh on Sands on 7 July 13
07 aged 68.
According to chroniclers, Edward requested that his bones should be carried
on Scottish campaigns and that his heart be taken to the Holy Land. However,
Edward was buried at Westminster Abbey in a plain black marble tomb, which
in later years was painted with the words Scottorum malleus (Hammer of the S
cots) and Pactum serva (Keep troth). Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, the Exchequer paid to keep candles burning 'round the body of th
e Lord Edward, formerly King of England, of famous memory'.
--
We are angels with but one wing.
To fly we must embrace each other.
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