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发信人: Systems (Queen Victoria Died), 信区: English
标 题: The Tudors--HENRY VIII
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年04月06日18:40:58 星期天), 站内信件
HENRY VIII (r. 1509-1547)
Henry's interest in foreign policy was focused on Western Europe, which was
a shifting pattern of alliances centred round the kings of Spain and France,
and the Holy Roman Emperor. (Henry was related by marriage to all three - h
is wife Catherine was Ferdinand of Aragon's daughter, his sister Mary marrie
d Louis XII of France in 1514, and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V was Cath
erine's nephew.) An example of these shifts was Henry's unsuccessful Anglo-S
panish campaigns against France, ending in peace with France in 1520, when h
e spent huge sums on displays and tournaments at the Field of the Cloth of G
old. Henry also invested in the navy, and increased its size from 5 to 53 sh
ips (including the Mary Rose, the remains of which lie in the Portsmouth Nav
al Museum).
The second half of Henry's reign was dominated by two issues very important
for the later history of England and the monarchy: the succession and the Pr
otestant Reformation, which led to the formation of the Church of England.
Henry had married his brother's widow, Catherine of Aragon, in 1509. Catheri
ne had produced only one surviving child - a girl, Princess Mary, born in 15
16. By the end of the 1520s, Henry's wife was in her forties and he was desp
erate for a son. The Tudor dynasty had been established by conquest in 1485
and Henry was only its second monarch. England had not so far had a ruling q
ueen, and the dynasty was not secure enough to run the risk of handing the C
rown on to a woman, risking disputed succession or domination of a foreign p
ower through marriage.
Henry had anyway fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, the sister of one of his m
any mistresses, and tried to persuade the Pope to grant him an annulment of
his marriage on the grounds that it had never been legal. (Royal divorces ha
d happened before: Louis XII had been granted a divorce in 1499, and in 1527
James IV's widow Margaret (Henry's sister) had also been granted one.) Howe
ver, a previous Pope had specifically granted Henry a licence to marry his b
rother's widow in 1509. In May 1529, Wolsey failed to gain the Pope's agreem
ent to resolve Henry's case in England. All the efforts of Henry and his adv
isers came to nothing; Wolsey was dismissed and arrested, but died before he
could be brought to trial.
Since the attempts to obtain the divorce through pressure on the papacy had
failed, Wolsey's eventual successor Thomas Cromwell (Henry's chief adviser f
rom 1532 onwards) turned to Parliament, using its powers and anti-clerical a
ttitude (encouraged by Wolsey's excesses) to decide the issue. The result wa
s a series of Acts cutting back papal power and influence in England and bri
nging about the English Reformation. In 1532, an Act against Annates - altho
ugh suspended during 'the king's pleasure' - was a clear warning to the Pope
that ecclesiastical revenues were under threat. In 1532, Cranmer was promot
ed to Archbishop of Canterbury and, following the Pope's confirmation of his
appointment, in May 1533 Cranmer declared Henry's marriage invalid; Anne Bo
leyn was crowned queen a week later.
The Pope responded with excommunication, and Parliamentary legislation enact
ing Henry's decision to break with the Roman Catholic Church soon followed.
An Act in restraint of appeals forbade appeals to Rome, stating that England
was an empire, governed by one supreme head and king who possessed 'whole a
nd entire' authority within the realm, and that no judgements or excommunica
tions from Rome were valid. An Act of Submission of the Clergy and an Act of
Succession followed, together with an Act of Supremacy (1534) which recogni
sed that the king was 'the only supreme head of the Church of England called
Anglicana Ecclesia'. The breach between the king and the Pope forced clergy
, office-holders and others to choose their allegiance - the most famous bei
ng Sir Thomas More, who was executed for treason in 1535.
The other effect of the English Protestant Reformation was the Dissolution o
f Monasteries, under which monastic lands and possessions were broken up and
sold off. In the 1520s, Wolsey had closed down some of the small monastic c
ommunities to pay for his new foundations (he had colleges built at Oxford a
nd Ipswich). In 1535-6, another 200 smaller monasteries were dissolved by st
atute, followed by the remaining greater houses in 1538-40; as a result, Cro
wn revenues doubled for a few years.
Henry's second marriage had raised hopes for a male heir. Anne Boleyn, howev
er, produced another daughter, Princess Elizabeth, and failed to produce a m
ale child. Henry got rid of Anne on charges of treason (presided over by Tho
mas Cromwell) which were almost certainly false, and she was executed in 153
6. In 1537 her replacement, Henry's third wife Jane Seymour, finally bore hi
m a son, who was later to become Edward VI. Jane died in childbed, 12 days a
fter the birth in 1537.
Although Cromwell had proved an effective minister in bringing about the roy
al divorce and the English Reformation, his position was insecure. The Pilgr
image of Grace, an insurrection in 1536, called for Cromwell's dismissal (th
e rebels were put down) but it was Henry's fourth, abortive and short-lived
marriage to Anne of Cleves that led to Cromwell's downfall. Despite being ma
de Earl of Essex in 1540, three months later he was arrested and executed. H
enry made two more marriages, to Katherine Howard (executed on grounds of ad
ultery in 1542) and Catherine Parr (who survived Henry to die in 1548). None
produced any children. Henry made sure that his sole male heir, Edward, was
educated by people who believed in Protestantism rather than Catholicism be
cause he wanted the anti-papal nature of his reformation and his dynasty to
become more firmly established.
After Cromwell's execution, no leading minister emerged in the last seven ye
ars of Henry's reign. Overweight, irascible and in failing health, Henry tur
ned his attention to France once more. Despite assembling an army of 40,000
men, only the town of Boulogne was captured and the French campaign failed.
Although more than half the monastic properties had been sold off, forced lo
ans and currency depreciation also had to be used to pay for the war, which
contributed to increased inflation. Henry died in London on 28 January 1547.
To some, Henry VIII was a strong and ruthless ruler, forcing through changes
to the Church-State relationship which excluded the papacy and brought the
clergy under control, thus strengthening the Crown's position and acquiring
the monasteries' wealth.
However, Henry's reformation had produced dangerous Protestant-Roman Catholi
c differences in the kingdom. The monasteries' wealth had been spent on wars
and had also built up the economic strength of the aristocracy and other fa
milies in the counties, which in turn was to encourage ambitious Tudor court
factions. Significantly, Parliament's involvement in making religious and d
ynastic changes had been firmly established. For all his concern over establ
ishing his dynasty and the resulting religious upheaval, Henry's six marriag
es had produced one sickly son and an insecure succession with two princesse
s (Mary and Elizabeth) who at one stage had been declared illegitimate - non
e of whom were to have children.
--
I am looking outside into the rain
through the blurred window, in front
of which you seem to be there.
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