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发信人: Systems (Queen Victoria Died), 信区: English
标 题: The Stuarts--CHARLES I
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年04月06日18:47:18 星期天), 站内信件
CHARLES I (r. 1625-49)
Charles I was born in Fife on 19 November 1600, the second son of James VI o
f Scotland (from 1603 also James I of England) and Anne of Denmark. He becam
e heir to the throne on the death of his brother, Prince Henry, in 1612. He
succeeded, as the second Stuart King of England, in 1625.
Controversy and disputes dogged Charles throughout his reign. They eventuall
y led to civil wars, first with the Scots from 1637 and later in England (16
42-46 and 1648). The Civil Wars deeply divided people at the time, and histo
rians still disagree about the real causes of the conflict, but it is clear
that Charles was not a successful ruler.
Charles was reserved (he had a residual stammer), self-righteous and had a h
igh concept of royal authority, believing in the divine right of kings. He w
as a good linguist and a sensitive man of refined tastes. He spent a lot on
the arts, inviting the artists Van Dyck and Rubens to work in England, and b
uying a great collection of paintings by Raphael and Titian (this collection
was later dispersed under Cromwell). His expenditure on his court and his p
icture collection greatly increased the crown's debts. Indeed, crippling lac
k of money was a key problem for both the early Stuart monarchs.
Charles was also deeply religious. He favoured the high Anglican form of wor
ship, with much ritual, while many of his subjects, particularly in Scotland
, wanted plainer forms. Charles found himself ever more in disagreement on r
eligious and financial matters with many leading citizens. Having broken an
engagement to the Spanish infanta, he had married a Roman Catholic, Henriett
a Maria of France, and this only made matters worse. Although Charles had pr
omised Parliament in 1624 that there would be no advantages for recusants (p
eople refusing to attend Church of England services), were he to marry a Rom
an Catholic bride, the French insisted on a commitment to remove all disabil
ities upon Roman Catholic subjects. Charles's lack of scruple was shown by t
he fact that this commitment was secretly added to the marriage treaty, desp
ite his promise to Parliament.
Charles had inherited disagreements with Parliament from his father, but his
own actions (particularly engaging in ill-fated wars with France and Spain
at the same time) eventually brought about a crisis in 1628-29. Two expediti
ons to France failed - one of which had been led by Buckingham, a royal favo
urite of both James I and Charles I, who had gained political influence and
military power. Such was the general dislike of Buckingham, that he was impe
ached by Parliament in 1628, although he was murdered by a fanatic before he
could lead the second expedition to France. The political controversy over
Buckingham demonstrated that, although the monarch's right to choose his own
Ministers was accepted as an essential part of the royal prerogative, Minis
ters had to be acceptable to Parliament or there would be repeated confronta
tions. The King's chief opponent in Parliament until 1629 was Sir John Eliot
, who was finally imprisoned in the Tower of London until his death in 1632.
Tensions between the King and Parliament centred around finances, made worse
by the costs of war abroad, and by religious suspicions at home (Charles's
marriage was seen as ominous, at a time when plots against Elizabeth I and t
he Gunpowder Plot in James I's reign were still fresh in the collective memo
ry, and when the Protestant cause was going badly in the war in Europe). In
the first four years of his rule, Charles was faced with the alternative of
either obtaining parliamentary funding and having his policies questioned by
argumentative Parliaments who linked the issue of supply to remedying their
grievances, or conducting a war without subsidies from Parliament. Charles
dismissed his fourth Parliament in March 1629 and decided to make do without
either its advice or the taxes which it alone could grant legally.
Although opponents later called this period 'the Eleven Years' Tyranny', Cha
rles's decision to rule without Parliament was technically within the King's
royal prerogative, and the absence of a Parliament was less of a grievance
to many people than the efforts to raise revenue by non-parliamentary means.
Charles's leading advisers, including William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbur
y, and the Earl of Strafford, were efficient but disliked. For much of the 1
630s, the King gained most of the income he needed from such measures as imp
ositions, exploitation of forest laws, forced loans, wardship and, above all
, ship money (extended in 1635 from ports to the whole country). These measu
res made him very unpopular, alienating many who were the natural supporters
of the Crown.
Scotland (which Charles had left at the age of 3, returning only for his cor
onation in 1633) proved the catalyst for rebellion. Charles's attempt to imp
ose a High Church liturgy and prayer book in Scotland had prompted a riot in
1637 in Edinburgh which escalated into general unrest. Charles had to recal
l Parliament; however, the Short Parliament of April 1640 queried Charles's
request for funds for war against the Scots and was dissolved within weeks.
The Scots occupied Newcastle and, under the treaty of Ripon, stayed in occup
ation of Northumberland and Durham and they were to be paid a subsidy until
their grievances were redressed.
Charles was finally forced to call another Parliament in November 1640. This
one, which came to be known as The Long Parliament, started with the impris
onment of Laud and Strafford (the latter was executed within six months, aft
er a Bill of Attainder which did not allow for a defence), and the abolition
of the King's Council (Star Chamber), and moved on to declare ship money an
d other fines illegal. The King agreed that Parliament could not be dissolve
d without its own consent, and the Triennial Act of 1641 meant that no more
than three years could elapse between Parliaments.
The Irish uprising of October 1641 raised tensions between the King and Parl
iament over the command of the Army. Parliament issued a Grand Remonstrance
repeating their grievances, impeached 12 bisops and attempted to impeach the
Queen. Charles responded by entering the Commons in a failed attempt to arr
est five Members of Parliament, who had fled before his arrival. Parliament
reacted by passing a Militia Bill allowing troops to be raised only under of
ficers approved by Parliament. Finally, on 22 August 1642 at Nottingham, Cha
rles raised the Royal Standard calling for loyal subjects to support him (Ox
ford was to be the King's capital during the war). The Civil War, what Sir W
illiam Waller (a Parliamentary general and moderate) called 'this war withou
t an enemy', had begun.
The Battle of Edgehill in October 1642 showed that early on the fighting was
even. Broadly speaking, Charles retained the north, west and south-west of
the country, and Parliament had London, East Anglia and the south-east, alth
ough there were pockets of resistance everywhere, ranging from solitary garr
isons to whole cities. However, the Navy sided with Parliament (which made c
ontinental aid difficult), and Charles lacked the resources to hire substant
ial mercenary help.
Parliament had entered an armed alliance with the predominant Scottish Presb
yterian group under the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643, and from 1644 on
wards Parliament's armies gained the upper hand - particularly with the impr
oved training and discipline of the New Model Army. The Self-Denying Ordinan
ce was passed to exclude Members of Parliament from holding army commands, t
hereby getting rid of vacillating or incompetent earlier Parliamentary gener
als. Under strong generals like Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, Parl
iament won victories at Marston Moor (1644) and Naseby (1645). The capture o
f the King's secret correspondence after Naseby showed the extent to which h
e had been seeking help from Ireland and from the Continent, which alienated
many moderate supporters.
In May 1646, Charles placed himself in the hands of the Scottish Army (who h
anded him to the English Parliament after nine months in return for arrears
of payment - the Scots had failed to win Charles's support for establishing
Presbyterianism in England). Charles did not see his action as surrender, bu
t as an opportunity to regain lost ground by playing one group off against a
nother; he saw the monarchy as the source of stability and told parliamentar
y commanders 'you cannot be without me: you will fall to ruin if I do not su
stain you'. In Scotland and Ireland, factions were arguing, whilst in Englan
d there were signs of division in Parliament between the Presbyterians and t
he Independents, with alienation from the Army (where radical doctrines such
as that of the Levellers were threatening commanders' authority). Charles's
negotiations continued from his captivity at Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle
of Wight (to which he had 'escaped' from Hampton Court in November 1647) an
d led to the Engagement with the Scots, under which the Scots would provide
an army for Charles in exchange for the imposition of the Covenant on Englan
d. This led to the second Civil War of 1648, which ended with Cromwell's vic
tory at Preston in August.
The Army, concluding that permanent peace was impossible whilst Charles live
d, decided that the King must be put on trial and executed. In December, Par
liament was purged, leaving a small rump totally dependent on the Army, and
the Rump Parliament established a High Court of Justice in the first week of
January 1649. On 20 January, Charles was charged with high treason 'against
the realm of England'. Charles refused to plead, saying that he did not rec
ognise the legality of the High Court (it had been established by a Commons
purged of dissent, and without the House of Lords - nor had the Commons ever
acted as a judicature).
The King was sentenced to death on 27 January. Three days later, Charles was
beheaded on a scaffold outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall, London. T
he King asked for warm clothing before his execution: 'the season is so shar
p as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine proceeds f
rom fear. I would have no such imputation.' On the scaffold, he repeated his
case: 'I must tell you that the liberty and freedom [of the people] consist
s in having of Government, those laws by which their life and their goods ma
y be most their own. It is not for having share in Government, Sir, that is
nothing pertaining to them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different th
ings. If I would have given way to an arbitrary way, for to have all laws ch
anged according to the Power of the Sword, I needed not to have come here, a
nd therefore I tell you ... that I am the martyr of the people.' His final w
ords were 'I go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no distu
rbance can be.'
The King was buried on 9 February at Windsor, rather than Westminster Abbey,
to avoid public disorder. To avoid the automatic succession of Charles I's
son Charles, an Act was passed on 30 January forbidding the proclaiming of a
nother monarch. On 7 February 1649, the office of King was formally abolishe
d.
The Civil Wars were essentially confrontations between the monarchy and Parl
iament over the definitions of the powers of the monarchy and Parliament's a
uthority. These constitutional disagreements were made worse by religious an
imosities and financial disputes. Both sides claimed that they stood for the
rule of law, yet civil war was by definition a matter of force. Charles I,
in his unwavering belief that he stood for constitutional and social stabili
ty, and the right of the people to enjoy the benefits of that stability, fat
ally weakened his position by failing to negotiate a compromise with Parliam
ent and paid the price. To many, Charles was seen as a martyr for his people
and, to this day, wreaths of remembrance are laid by his supporters on the
anniversary of his death at his statue, which faces down Whitehall to the si
te of his execution.
--
We are angels with but one wing.
To fly we must embrace each other.
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