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发信人: Systems (Queen Victoria Died), 信区: English
标 题: The Stuarts--WILLIAM III AND MARY II
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年04月06日18:51:15 星期天), 站内信件
WILLIAM III (r. 1689-1702) AND MARY II (r. 1689-94)
In 1689 Parliament declared that James had abdicated by deserting his kingdo
m. William (reigned 1689-1702) and Mary (reigned 1689-94) were offered the t
hrone as joint monarchs. They accepted a Declaration of Rights (later a Bill
), drawn up by a Convention of Parliament, which limited the Sovereign's pow
er, reaffirmed Parliament's claim to control taxation and legislation, and p
rovided guarantees against the abuses of power which James II and the other
Stuart Kings had committed. The exclusion of James II and his heirs was exte
nded to exclude all Catholics from the throne, since 'it hath been found by
experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this prote
stant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince'. The Sovereign was required
in his coronation oath to swear to maintain the Protestant religion.
The Bill was designed to ensure Parliament could function free from royal in
terference. The Sovereign was forbidden from suspending or dispensing with l
aws passed by Parliament, or imposing taxes without Parliamentary consent. T
he Sovereign was not allowed to interfere with elections or freedom of speec
h, and proceedings in Parliament were not to be questioned in the courts or
in any body outside Parliament itself. (This was the basis of modern parliam
entary privilege.) The Sovereign was required to summon Parliament frequentl
y (the Triennial Act of 1694 reinforced this by requiring the regular summon
ing of Parliaments). Parliament tightened control over the King's expenditur
e; the financial settlement reached with William and Mary deliberately made
them dependent upon Parliament, as one Member of Parliament said, 'when prin
ces have not needed money they have not needed us'. Finally the King was for
bidden to maintain a standing army in time of peace without Parliament's con
sent.
The Bill of Rights added further defences of individual rights. The King was
forbidden to establish his own courts or to act as a judge himself, and the
courts were forbidden to impose excessive bail or fines, or cruel and unusu
al punishments. However, the Sovereign could still summon and dissolve Parli
ament, appoint and dismiss Ministers, veto legislation and declare war.
The so-called 'Glorious Revolution' has been much debated over the degree to
which it was conservative or radical in character. The result was a permane
nt shift in power; although the monarchy remained of central importance, Par
liament had become a permanent feature of political life.
The Toleration Act of 1689 gave all non-conformists except Roman Catholics f
reedom of worship, thus rewarding Protestant dissenters for their refusal to
side with James II.
After 1688 there was a rapid development of party, as parliamentary sessions
lengthened and the Triennial Act ensured frequent general elections. Althou
gh the Tories had fully supported the Revolution, it was the Whigs (traditio
nal critics of the monarchy) who supported William and consolidated their po
sition. Recognising the advisability of selecting a Ministry from the politi
cal party with the majority in the House of Commons, William appointed a Min
istry in 1696 which was drawn from the Whigs; known as the Junto, it was reg
arded with suspicion by Members of Parliament as it met separately, but it m
ay be regarded as the forerunner of the modern Cabinet of Ministers.
In 1697, Parliament decided to give an annual grant of £700,000 to the King
for life, as a contribution to the expenses of civil government, which incl
uded judges' and ambassadors' salaries, as well as the Royal Household's exp
enses.
The Bill of Rights had established the succession with the heirs of Mary II,
Anne and William III in that order, but by 1700 Mary had died childless, An
ne's only surviving child (out of 17 children), the Duke of Gloucester, had
died at the age of 11 and William was dying. The succession had to be decide
d.
The Act of Settlement of 1701 was designed to secure the Protestant successi
on to the throne, and to strengthen the guarantees for ensuring parliamentar
y system of government. According to the Act, succession to the throne went
to Princess Sophia, Electress of Hanover and James I's granddaughter, and he
r Protestant heirs.
The Act also laid down the conditions under which alone the Crown could be h
eld. No Roman Catholic, nor anyone married to a Roman Catholic, could hold t
he English Crown. The Sovereign now had to swear to maintain the Church of E
ngland (and after 1707, the Church of Scotland). The Act of Settlement not o
nly addressed the dynastic and religious aspects of succession, it also furt
her restricted the powers and prerogatives of the Crown.
Under the Act, parliamentary consent had to be given for the Sovereign to en
gage in war or leave the country, and judges were to hold office on good con
duct and not at royal pleasure - thus establishing judicial independence. Th
e Act of Settlement reinforced the Bill of Rights, in that it strengthened t
he principle that government was undertaken by the Sovereign and his or her
constitutional advisers (i.e. his or her Ministers), not by the Sovereign an
d any personal advisers whom he or she happened to choose.
One of William's main reasons for accepting the throne was to reinforce the
struggle against Louis XIV. William's foreign policy was dominated by the pr
iority to contain French expansionism. England and the Dutch joined the coal
ition against France during the Nine Years War. Although Louis was forced to
recognise William as King under the Treaty of Ryswick (1697), William's pol
icy of intervention in Europe was costly in terms of finance and his popular
ity. The Bank of England, established in 1694 to raise money for the war by
borrowing, did not loosen the King's financial reliance on Parliament as the
national debt depended on parliamentary guarantees. William's Dutch adviser
s were resented, and in 1699 his Dutch Blue Guards were forced to leave the
country.
Never of robust health, William died as a result of complications from a fal
l whilst riding at Hampton Court in 1702.
--
We are angels with but one wing.
To fly we must embrace each other.
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