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发信人: nosay (☆冰红茶⊙自在心情☆), 信区: English
标 题: song
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年12月03日09:04:19 星期三), 站内信件
But in 960 a new power, Song (960-1279), reunified most of China Proper.
The Song period divides into two phases: Northern Song (960-1127) and
Southern Song (1127-1279). The division was caused by the forced
abandonment of north China in 1127 by the Song court, which could not
push back the nomadic invaders.
The founders of the Song dynasty built an effective centralized
bureaucracy staffed with civilian scholar-officials. Regional military
governors and their supporters were replaced by centrally appointed
officials. This system of civilian rule led to a greater concentration
of power in the emperor and his palace bureaucracy than had been
achieved in the previous dynasties.
The Song dynasty is notable for the development of cities not only for
administrative purposes but also as centers of trade, industry, and
maritime commerce. The landed scholar-officials, sometimes
collectively referred to as the gentry, lived in the provincial
centers alongside the shopkeepers, artisans, and merchants. A new
group of wealthy commoners--the mercantile class--arose as printing
and education spread, private trade grew, and a market economy began
to link the coastal provinces and the interior. Landholding and
government employment were no longer the only means of gaining wealth
and prestige.
Culturally, the Song refined many of the developments of the previous
centuries. Included in these refinements were not only the Tang ideal of
the universal man, who combined the qualities of scholar, poet,
painter, and statesman, but also historical writings, painting,
calligraphy, and hard-glazed porcelain. Song intellectuals sought
answers to all philosophical and political questions in the Confucian
Classics. This renewed interest in the Confucian ideals and society of
ancient times coincided with the decline of Buddhism, which the
Chinese regarded as foreign and offering few practical guidelines for
the solution of political and other mundane problems.
The Song Neo-Confucian philosophers, finding a certain purity in the
originality of the ancient classical texts, wrote commentaries on them.
The most influential of these philosophers was Zhu Xi (b1130-1200),
whose synthesis of Confucian thought and Buddhist, Taoist, and other
ideas became the official imperial ideology from late Song times to
the late nineteenth century. As incorporated into the examination
system, Zhu Xi's philosophy evolved into a rigid official creed, which
stressed the one-sided obligations of obedience and compliance of
subject to ruler, child to father, wife to husband, and younger
brother to elder brother. The effect was to inhibit the societal
development of premodern China, resulting both in many generations of
political, social, and spiritual stability and in a slowness of cultural
and institutional change up to the nineteenth century. Neo-Confucian
doctrines also came to play the dominant role in the intellectual life
of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.
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