English 版 (精华区)
发信人: nosay (☆冰红茶⊙自在心情☆), 信区: English
标 题: The Imperial Era: III Yuan
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年12月03日09:04:55 星期三), 站内信件
Mongolian Interlude
By the mid-thirteenth century, the Mongols had subjugated north China,
Korea, and the Muslim kingdoms of Central Asia and had twice
penetrated Europe. With the resources of his vast empire, Kublai Khan
( 1215-94), a grandson of Genghis Khan ( 1167?-1227) and the supreme
leader of all Mongol tribes, began his drive against the Southern Song.
Even before the extinction of the Song dynasty, Kublai Khan had
established the first alien dynasty to rule all China--the Yuan
(1279-1368).
Although the Mongols sought to govern China through traditional
institutions, using Chinese (Han) bureaucrats, they were not up to the
task. The Han were discriminated against socially and politically. All
important central and regional posts were monopolized by Mongols, who
also preferred employing non-Chinese from other parts of the Mongol
domain--Central Asia, the Middle East, and even Europe--in those
positions for which no Mongol could be found. Chinese were more often
employed in non-Chinese regions of the empire.
As in other periods of alien dynastic rule of China, a rich cultural
diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural
achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the
increased use of the written vernacular. The Mongols' extensive West
Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange.
Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich the Chinese
performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to Islam, by
Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the
northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed
a period of toleration. Lamaism (Tibetan Buddhism) flourished, although
native Taoism endured Mongol persecutions. Confucian governmental
practices and examinations based on the Classics, which had fallen
into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were
reinstated by the Mongols in the hope of maintaining order over Han
society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature,
cartography and geography, and scientific education. Certain key Chinese
innovations, such as printing techniques, porcelain production, playing
cards, and medical literature, were introduced in Europe, while the
production of thin glass and cloisonne became popular in China. The
first records of travel by Westerners date from this time. The most
famous traveler of the period was the Venetian Marco Polo, whose account
of his trip to "Cambaluc," the Great Khan's capital (now Beijing),
and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The Mongols
undertook extensive public works. Road and water communications were
reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries
were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was
rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills
and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the
terminus of the Grand Canal, which was completely renovated. These
commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland as well as
maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated the first direct
Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese and Mongol travelers to the West
were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering,
while bringing back to the Middle Kingdom new scientific discoveries
and architectural innovations. Contacts with the West also brought the
introduction to China of a major new food crop--sorghum--along with
other foreign food products and methods of preparation.
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