English 版 (精华区)
发信人: nosay (☆冰红茶⊙自在心情☆), 信区: English
标 题: Republican of China
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年12月03日09:05:53 星期三), 站内信件
The republic that Sun Yat-sen ( ) and his associates envisioned
evolved slowly. The revolutionists lacked an army, and the power of Yuan
Shikai ( ) began to outstrip that of parliament. Yuan revised the
constitution at will and became dictatorial. In August 1912 a new
political party was founded by Song Jiaoren ( 1882-1913), one of Sun's
associates. The party, the Guomindang ( Kuomintang or KMT--the
National eople's Party, frequently referred to as the Nationalist
Party), was an amalgamation of small political groups, including Sun's
Tongmeng Hui ( ). In the national elections held in February 1913 for
the new bicameral parliament, Song ampaigned against the Yuan
administration, and his party won a majority of seats. Yuan had Song
assassinated in March; he had already arranged the assassination of
several pro-revolutionist generals. Animosity toward Yuan grew. In the
summer of 1913 seven southern provinces rebelled against Yuan. When
the rebellion was suppressed, Sun and other instigators fled to Japan.
In October 1913 an intimidated parliament formally elected Yuan
president of the Republic of China, and the major powers extended
recognition to his government. To achieve international recognition,
Yuan Shikai had to agree to autonomy for Outer Mongolia and Xizang ( ).
China was still to be suzerain, but it would have to allow Russia a
free hand in Outer Mongolia and Britain continuance of its influence
in Xizang.
In November Yuan Shikai, legally president, ordered the Guomindang
dissolved and its members removed from parliament. Within a few months,
he suspended parliament and the provincial assemblies and forced the
promulgation of a new constitution, which, in effect, made him president
for life. Yuan's ambitions still were not satisfied, and, by the end of
1915, it was announced that he would reestablish the monarchy.
Widespread rebellions ensued, and umerous provinces declared
independence. With opposition at every quarter and the nation breaking
up into warlord factions, Yuan Shikai died of natural causes in June
1916, deserted by his lieutenants.
Nationalism and Communism
After Yuan Shikai's death, shifting alliances of regional warlords
fought for control of the Beijing government. The nation also was
threatened from without by the Japanese. When World War I broke out in
1914, Japan fought on the Allied side and seized German holdings in
Shandong ( ) Province. In 1915 the Japanese set before the warlord
government in Beijing the so-called Twenty-One Demands, which would have
made China a Japanese protectorate. The Beijing government rejected
some of these demands but yielded to the Japanese insistence on
keeping the Shandong territory already in its possession. Beijing also
recognized Tokyo's authority over southern Manchuria and eastern Inner
Mongolia. In 1917, in secret communiques, Britain, France, and Italy
assented to the Japanese claim in exchange for the Japan's naval
action against Germany.
In 1917 China declared war on Germany in the hope of recovering its lost
province, then under Japanese control. But in 1918 the Beijing
government signed a secret deal with Japan accepting the latter's
claim to Shandong. When the Paris peace conference of 1919 confirmed the
Japanese claim to Shandong and Beijing's sellout became public,
internal reaction was shattering. On May 4, 1919, there were massive
student demonstrations against the Beijing government and Japan. The
political fervor, student activism, and iconoclastic and reformist
intellectual currents set in motion by the patriotic student protest
developed into a national awakening known as the May Fourth Movement (
). The intellectual milieu in which the May Fourth Movement developed
was known as the New Culture Movement and occupied the period from
1917 to 1923. The student demonstrations of May 4, 1919 were the high
point of the New Culture Movement, and the terms are often used
synonymously. Students returned from abroad advocating social and
political theories ranging from complete Westernization of China to
the socialism that one day would be adopted by China's communist rulers.
Opposing the Warlords
The May Fourth Movement helped to rekindle the then-fading cause of
republican revolution. In 1917 Sun Yat-sen had become commander-in-chief
of a rival military government in Guangzhou ( ) in collaboration with
southern warlords. In October 1919 Sun reestablished the Guomindang to
counter the government in Beijing. The latter, under a succession of
warlords, still maintained its facade of legitimacy and its relations
with the West. By 1921 Sun had become president of the southern
government. He spent his remaining years trying to consolidate his
regime and achieve unity with the north. His efforts to obtain aid
from the Western democracies were ignored, however, and in 1921 he
turned to the Soviet Union, which had recently achieved its own
revolution. The Soviets sought to befriend the Chinese revolutionists by
offering scathing attacks on "Western imperialism." But for political
expediency, the Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for
both Sun and the newly established Chinese Communist Party ( CCP).
The Soviets hoped for consolidation but were prepared for either side to
emerge victorious. In this way the struggle for power in China began
between the Nationalists and the Communists. In 1922 the
Guomindang-warlord alliance in Guangzhou was ruptured, and Sun fled to
Shanghai ( ). By then Sun saw the need to seek Soviet support for his
cause. In 1923 a joint statement by Sun and a Soviet representative in
Shanghai pledged Soviet assistance for China's national unification.
Soviet advisers--the most prominent of whom was an agent of the
Comintern, Mikhail Borodin--began to arrive in China in 1923 to aid in
the reorganization and consolidation of the Guomindang along the lines
of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CCP was under
Comintern instructions to cooperate with the Guomindang, and its members
were encouraged to join while maintaining their party identities. The
CCP was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922
and only 1,500 by 1925. The Guomindang in 1922 already had 150,000
members. Soviet advisers also helped the Nationalists set up a political
institute to train propagandists in mass mobilization techniques and in
1923 sent Chiang Kai-shek ( Jiang Jieshi in pinyin), one of Sun's
lieutenants from Tongmeng Hui days, for several months' military and
political study in Moscow. After Chiang's return in late 1923, he
participated in the establishment of the Whampoa ( Huangpu in pinyin)
Military Academy outside Guangzhou, which was the seat of government
under the Guomindang-CCP alliance. In 1924 Chiang became head of the
academy and began the rise to prominence that would make him Sun's
successor as head of the Guomindang and the unifier of all China under
the right-wing nationalist government.
Sun Yat-sen died of cancer in Beijing in March 1925, but the Nationalist
movement he had helped to initiate was gaining momentum. During the
summer of 1925, Chiang, as commander-in-chief of the National
Revolutionary Army, set out on the long-delayed Northern Expedition
against the northern warlords. Within nine months, half of China had
been conquered. By 1926, however, the Guomindang had divided into
left- and right-wing factions, and the Communist bloc within it was also
growing. In March 1926, after thwarting a kidnapping attempt against
him, Chiang abruptly dismissed his Soviet advisers, imposed restrictions
on CCP members' participation in the top leadership, and emerged as the
preeminent Guomindang leader. The Soviet Union, still hoping to prevent
a split between Chiang and the CCP, ordered Communist underground
activities to facilitate the Northern Expedition, which was finally
launched by Chiang from Guangzhou in July 1926.
In early 1927 the Guomindang-CCP rivalry led to a split in the
revolutionary ranks. The CCP and the left wing of the Guomindang had
decided to move the seat of the Nationalist government from Guangzhou to
Wuhan. But Chiang, whose Northern Expedition was proving successful,
set his forces to destroying the Shanghai CCP apparatus and
established an anti-Communist government at Nanjing in April 1927. There
now were three capitals in China: the internationally recognized
warlord regime in Beijing; the Communist and left-wing Guomindang regime
at Wuhan ( ); and the right-wing civilian-military regime at Nanjing,
which would remain the Nationalist capital for the next decade.
The Comintern cause appeared bankrupt. A new policy was instituted
calling on the CCP to foment armed insurrections in both urban and rural
areas in preparation for an expected rising tide of revolution.
Unsuccessful attempts were made by Communists to take cities such as
Nanchang ( ), Changsha ( ), Shantou ( ), and Guangzhou, and an armed
rural insurrection, known as the Autumn Harvest Uprising, was staged
by peasants in Hunan Province. The insurrection was led by Mao Zedong
(1893-1976), who would later become chairman of the CCP and head of
state of the People's Republic of China. Mao was of peasant origins
and was one of the founders of the CCP.
But in mid-1927 the CCP was at a low ebb. The Communists had been
expelled from Wuhan by their left-wing Guomindang allies, who in turn
were toppled by a military regime. By 1928 all of China was at least
nominally under Chiang's control, and the Nanjing government received
prompt international recognition as the sole legitimate government of
China. The Nationalist government announced that in conformity with
Sun Yat-sen's formula for the three stages of revolution--military
unification, political tutelage, and constitutional democracy--China had
reached the end of the first phase and would embark on the second,
which would be under Guomindang direction.
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