Philosophy 版 (精华区)
发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Knowledge of Freedom I
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日02:12:37 星期四), 站内信件
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY
The Knowledge of Freedom
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I
THE CONSCIOUS HUMAN DEED
Is man in his thinking and acting a spiritually free being, or is he compell
ed by the iron necessity of natural law? Few questions have been debated mor
e than this one. The concept of the freedom of the human will has found enth
usiastic supporters and stubborn opponents in plenty. There are those who, i
n moral fervor, declare it to be sheer stupidity to deny so evident a fact a
s freedom. Opposed to them are others who regard as utterly naive the belief
that the uniformity of natural law is interrupted in the sphere of human ac
tion and thinking. One and the same thing is here declared as often to be th
e most precious possession of humanity, as it is said to be its most fatal i
llusion. Infinite subtlety has been devoted to explaining how human freedom
is compatible with the working of nature, to which, after all, man belongs.
No less pains have been taken to make comprehensible how a delusion like thi
s could have arisen. That here we are dealing with one of the most important
questions of life, religion, conduct and science, is felt by everyone whose
character is not totally devoid of depth. And indeed, it belongs to the sad
signs of the superficiality of present day thinking that a book which attem
pts to develop a "new faith"1 out of the results of the latest scientific di
scoveries, contains, on this question, nothing but the words:
"There is no need here to go into the question of the freedom of the human w
ill. The supposed indifferent freedom of choice has always been recognized a
s an empty illusion by every philosophy worthy of the name. The moral valuat
ion of human conduct and character remains untouched by this question."
I do not quote this passage because I consider that the book in which it app
ears has any special importance, but because it seems to me to express the o
nly view which most of our thinking contemporaries are able to reach, concer
ning this question. Everyone who claims to have advanced beyond an elementar
y education seems nowadays to know that freedom cannot consist in choosing a
t one's pleasure, one or the other of two possible courses of action; it is
maintained that there is always a quite definite reason why, out of several
possible actions, we carry out a particular one.
This seems obvious. Nevertheless, up to now, the main attacks by those who o
ppose freedom are directed only against the freedom of choice. Herbert Spenc
er, who has views which are rapidly gaining ground, says:
"That everyone is able to desire or not to desire, as he pleases, which is t
he essential principle in the dogma of free will, is negated by the analysis
of consciousness, as well as by the contents of the preceding chapter."2
Others, too, start from the same point of view in combating the concept of f
ree will. The germs of all that is relevant in these arguments are to be fou
nd as early as Spinoza.3 All that he brought forward in clear and simple lan
guage against the idea of freedom has since been repeated times without numb
er, but usually veiled in the most complicated theoretical doctrines so that
it is difficult to recognize the straightforward train of thought on which
all depends. Spinoza writes in a letter of October or November, 1674:
"I call something free which exists and acts from the pure necessity of its
nature, and I call that compelled, the existence and action of which are exa
ctly and fixedly determined by something else. The existence of God, for exa
mple, though necessary, is free because He exists only through the necessity
of His nature. Similarly, God knows Himself and all else in freedom, becaus
e it follows solely from the necessity of His nature that He knows all. You
see, therefore, that I regard freedom as consisting, not in free decision, b
ut in free necessity.
"But let us come down to created things which are all determined by external
causes to exist and to act in a fixed and definite manner. To recognize thi
s more clearly, let us imagine a perfectly simple case. A stone, for example
, receives from an external cause acting upon it a certain quantity of motio
n, by which it necessarily continues to move after the impact of the externa
l cause has ceased. The continued motion of the stone is a compelled one, no
t a necessary one, because it has to be defined by the thrust of the externa
l cause. What is true here for the stone is true also for every other partic
ular thing, however complicated and many-sided it may be, namely, that each
thing is necessarily determined by external causes to exist and to act in a
fixed and definite manner.
"Now, please, suppose that during its motion the stone thinks and knows that
it is striving to the best of its ability to continue in motion. This stone
which is conscious only of its striving and is by no means indifferent, wil
l believe that it is absolutely free, and that it continues in motion for no
other reason than its own will to continue. But this is that human freedom
which everybody claims to possess and which consists in nothing but this, th
at men are conscious of their desires, but do not Know the causes by which t
hey are determined. Thus the child believes that he is free when he desires
milk, the angry boy that he is free in his desire for vengeance, and the tim
id in his desire for flight. Again, the drunken man believes that he says of
his own free decision what, sober again, he would fain have left unsaid, an
d as this prejudice is innate in all men, it is not easy to free oneself fro
m it. For although experience teaches us often enough that man, least of all
, can temper his desires and that, moved by conflicting passions, he sees th
e better and pursues the worse, yet he considers himself free, simply becaus
e there are some things which he desires less strongly and many desires whic
h can easily be inhibited through the recollection of something else which i
s often remembered."
Because here we are dealing with a clear and definitely expressed view, it i
s also easy to discover the fundamental error in it. As necessarily as a sto
ne continues a definite movement after being put in motion, just as necessar
ily is a man supposed to carry out an action when urged thereto by any reaso
n. It is only because man is conscious of his action, that he regards himsel
f as its free originator. But, in doing so, he overlooks the fact that he is
driven to it by a cause which he has to obey unconditionally. The error in
this train of thought is soon found. Spinoza, and all who think like him, ov
erlook the fact that man not only is conscious of his action, but may also b
ecome conscious of the causes which guide him. No one will deny that when th
e child desires milk, he is unfree, as is also the drunken man when he says
things he later regrets. Neither knows anything of the causes working in the
depths of their organisms, which exercise irresistible power over them. But
is it justifiable to lump together actions of this kind with those in which
a man is conscious, not only of his actions but also of the reasons which c
ause him to act? Are the actions of men really all of one kind? Should the d
eed of a soldier on the field of battle, of the research scientist in his la
boratory, of the statesman in complicated diplomatic negotiations, be placed
, scientifically, on the same level with that of the child when he desires m
ilk? It is indeed true that it is best to attempt the solution of a problem
where the conditions are simplest. But inability to differentiate has caused
endless confusion before now. There is, after all, a profound difference be
tween whether I know why I do something, or whether I do not. At first sight
this seems a self-evident truth. And yet those who oppose freedom never ask
whether a motive which I recognize and see through, compels me in the same
sense as does the organic process in the child that causes him to cry for mi
lk.
Eduard von Hartmann4 maintains that the human will depends on two main facto
rs: the motive and the character. If one regards all men as alike, or at any
rate the differences between them as negligible, then their will appears as
determined from without, namely by the circumstances which come to meet the
m. But if one takes into consideration that men let a representation become
a motive for their deeds only if their character is such that the particular
representation arouses a desire in them, then man appears as determined fro
m within and not from without. Now, because a representation pressing in on
him from without must first, in accordance with his character, be adopted as
a motive, man believes himself to be free, that is, independent of external
motives. The truth, however, according to Eduard von Hartmann, is that
"even though we ourselves first turn a representation into a motive, we do s
o not arbitrarily, but according to the necessity of our characterological d
isposition, that is, we are anything but free."
Here again, the difference between motives which I allow to influence me onl
y after I have permeated them with my consciousness, and those which I follo
w without having any clear knowledge of them, is disregarded.
And this leads directly to the standpoint from which the facts will be consi
dered here. Is it at all permissible to consider by itself the question of t
he freedom of our will? And if not: With what other question must it necessa
rily be connected?
If there is a difference between a conscious motive of my action and an unco
nscious impulse, then the conscious motive will result in an action which mu
st be judged differently from one that springs from blind urge. The first qu
estion must, therefore, concern this difference, and upon the answer will de
pend how we are to deal with the question of freedom as such.
What does it mean to know the reason for one's action? This question has bee
n too little considered because, unfortunately, the tendency has always been
to tear into two parts what is an inseparable whole: Man. We distinguish th
e knower from the doer, and the one who really matters is lost sight of: the
man who acts because he knows.
It is said: Man is free when his reason has the upper hand, not his animal c
ravings. Or else: Freedom means to be able to determine one's life and actio
n in accordance with purposes and decisions.
Nothing is achieved by assertions of this kind. For the question is just whe
ther reason, purposes and decisions exercise compulsion over a man in the sa
me way as do his animal cravings. If, without my doing, a reasonable decisio
n emerges in me with just the same necessity as hunger and thirst, then I mu
st needs obey it, and my freedom is an illusion.
Another phrase is: To be free means not that one is able to will what one wa
nts, but that one is able to do what one wants. This thought has been expres
sed with great clearness by the poet-philosopher, Robert Hamerling.5
"Man can, indeed, do what he wants, but he cannot will what he wants, becaus
e his will is determined by motives! He cannot will what he wants? Let us co
nsider these words more closely. Have they any sense? Should freedom of will
consist in being able to will something without reason, without a motive? B
ut what does it mean to will something, other than to have a reason to do or
to strive for this rather than that? To will something without a reason, wi
thout a motive, would mean to will something without willing it. The concept
of will is inseparable from that of motive. Without a motive to determine i
t, the will is an empty ability; only through the motive does it become acti
ve and real. It is, therefore, quite correct that the human will is not 'fre
e,' inasmuch as its direction is always determined by that motive which is t
he strongest. But, on the other hand, it must be admitted that in contrast w
ith this 'unfreedom' it is absurd to speak of a thinkable 'freedom' of the w
ill, which would end up in being able to will what one does not will."
Here again, only motives in general are discussed, without regard for the di
fference between unconscious and conscious motives. If a motive affects me a
nd I am compelled to act on it because it proves to be the "strongest" of it
s kind, then the thought of freedom ceases to have any meaning. Should it ma
tter to me whether I can do a thing or not, if I am forced by the motive to
do it? The immediate question is not whether I can or cannot do a thing when
a motive has influenced me, but whether only such motives exist as affect m
e with compelling necessity. If I have to will something, then I may well be
absolutely indifferent as to whether I can also do it. And if, through my c
haracter, or through circumstances prevailing in my environment, a motive is
pressed upon me which to my thinking is unreasonable, then I should even ha
ve to be glad if I could not do what I will.
The question is not whether I can carry out a decision once made, but how th
e decision arises within me.
What distinguishes man from all other organic beings is his rational thinkin
g. Actions he has in common with other organisms. Nothing is gained by seeki
ng analogies in the animal world to clarify the concept of freedom of action
of human beings. Modern natural science loves such analogies. When scientis
ts have succeeded in finding among animals something similar to human behavi
or, they believe they have touched upon the most important question of the s
cience of man. To what misunderstandings this view leads is seen, for exampl
e, in a book by P. R閑,6 where the following remark on freedom appears:
"It is easy to explain why the movement of a stone seems to us necessary, wh
ile the will-impulse of a donkey does not. The causes which set the stone in
motion are external and visible, while the causes which induce in the donke
y impulses of will are internal and invisible, that is, between us and the p
lace where they are active there is the skull of the donkey.... The dependen
ce on a cause is not seen and the conclusion, therefore, is drawn that no de
pendence is present. It is explained that the will is, indeed, the cause of
the donkey's turning round, but that it is itself unconditioned; it is an ab
solute beginning."
Here again, human actions in which man is conscious of the reasons why he ac
ts, are simply ignored, for R閑 declares:
"Between us and the place where the causes are active there is the skull of
the donkey."
From these words can be seen that Ree had no notion that there are actions,
not indeed of the donkey, but of human beings, in which between us and the d
eed lies the motive that has become conscious. That Ree does not see this he
shows again later, when he says:
"We do not perceive the causes by which our will is determined, hence we bel
ieve that our will is not causally determined at all."
But enough of examples which show that many oppose freedom without knowing i
n the least what freedom is.
That an action cannot be free, of which the doer does not know why he carrie
s it out, is obvious. But what about an action for which we know the reason!
This leads us to the question: What is the origin and significance of think
ing? For without knowledge of the thinking activity of the soul, it is impos
sible to form a concept of what it means to know something, and therefore al
so of what it means to know the reason for an action. When we recognize what
thinking in general means, then it will also be easy to become clear about
the role that thinking plays in human action. As Hegel7 rightly says,
"It is thinking that turns the soul, with which the animals are also endowed
, into spirit."
And this is why thinking gives to human action its characteristic stamp.
It is not maintained that all our action springs only from the sober deliber
ations of our reason. Far be it from me to consider human in the highest sen
se only those actions which result from abstract judgments. But as soon as o
ur conduct rises above the sphere of the satisfaction of purely animal desir
es, our motives are always permeated by thoughts. Love, pity and patriotism
are motivating forces for deeds which cannot be analyzed away into cold conc
epts of the intellect. It is said that here the heart and the mood of soul h
old sway. No doubt. But the heart and the mood of the soul do not create the
motives. They presuppose them and let them enter. Pity enters my heart when
the representation of a person who arouses pity appears in my consciousness
. The way to the heart is through the head. Love is no exception. Whenever i
t is not merely the expression of bare sexual instinct, it depends on the re
presentation we form of the loved one. And the more idealistic these represe
ntations are, just so much the more blessed is our love. Here too, thought i
s the father of feeling. It is said: Love makes us blind to the failings of
the loved one. But this also holds good the other way round, and it can be s
aid: Love opens the eyes just for the good qualities of the loved one. Many
pass by these good qualities without noticing them. One, however, sees them,
and just because he does, love awakens in his soul. He has done nothing oth
er than form a representation of something, of which hundreds have none. The
y have no love because they lack the representation.
From whatever point we regard the subject, it becomes ever clearer that the
question of the nature of human action presupposes that of the origin of thi
nking. I shall, therefore, turn to this question next.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
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