Philosophy 版 (精华区)
发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Knowledge of Freedom II
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日02:13:57 星期四), 站内信件
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY
The Knowledge of Freedom
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II
THE FUNDAMENTAL URGE FOR KNOWLEDGE
Two souls alas are dwelling in my breast;
And each is fain to leave its brother.
The one, fast clinging, to the world adheres
With clutching organs, in love's sturdy lust;
The other strongly lifts itself from dust
To yonder high, ancestral spheres.
Faust I, Sc. 2
Priest translation8
In these words Goethe expresses a characteristic feature belonging to the de
epest foundation of human nature. Man is not a uniformly organized being. He
always demands more than the world gives him of its own accord. Nature has
endowed us with needs; among them are some that are left to our own initiati
ve to satisfy. Abundant are the gifts bestowed upon us, but still more abund
ant are our desires. We seem born to be dissatisfied. Our thirst for knowled
ge is but a special instance of this dissatisfaction. If we look twice at a
tree and the first time see its branches motionless, the second time in move
ment, we do not remain satisfied with this observation. Why does the tree ap
pear to us now motionless, now in movement? Thus we ask. Every glance at nat
ure evokes in us a number of questions. Every phenomenon we meet sets us a p
roblem. Every experience contains a riddle. We see emerging from the egg a c
reature like the mother animal; we ask the reason for this likeness. We noti
ce that living beings grow and develop to a certain degree of perfection and
we investigate the conditions for this experience. Nowhere are we satisfied
with what nature spreads before our senses. Everywhere we seek what we call
explanation of the facts.
The something more which we seek in things, over and above what is given us
directly in them, divides our whole being into two aspects; we become consci
ous of our contrast to the world. We confront the world as independent being
s. The universe appears to us to have two opposite poles: I and world.
We erect this barrier between ourselves and the world as soon as consciousne
ss first dawns in us. But we never cease to feel that, in spite of all, we b
elong to the world, that there is a bond of union between it and us, that we
are not beings outside, but within, the universe.
This feeling makes us strive to bridge over the contrast. And in this bridgi
ng the whole spiritual striving of mankind ultimately consists. The history
of man's spiritual life is an incessant search for unity between us and the
world. Religion, art and science all have this same aim. In the revelation G
od grants him, the religious believer seeks the solution of the problems in
the world which his I, dissatisfied with the world of mere phenomena, sets h
im. The artist seeks to imprint into matter the ideas of his I, in order to
reconcile with the world outside what lives within him. He, too, feels dissa
tisfied with the world as it appears to him, and seeks to embody into the wo
rld of mere phenomena that something more which his I, reaching out beyond i
t, contains. The thinker seeks the laws of phenomena, and strives to penetra
te with thinking what he experiences by observing. Only when we have made th
e world-content into our thought-content do we again find the unity from whi
ch we separated ourselves. We shall see later that this goal will be reached
only when the task of the scientific investigator is understood at a much d
eeper level than is usually the case. The whole situation I have described h
ere, presents itself to us on the stage of history in the contrast between a
unified view of the world or monism,9 and the theory of two worlds or duali
sm.10 Dualism pays attention only to the separation between I and world, bro
ught about by man's consciousness. All its efforts consist in a vain struggl
e to reconcile these opposites, which it calls spirit and matter, subject an
d object, or thinking and phenomena. The dualist feels that there must be a
bridge between the two worlds, but he is unable to find it. In as far as man
is aware of himself as "I," he cannot but think of this "I" as belonging to
spirit; and in contrasting this "I" with the world he cannot do otherwise t
han reckon the perceptions given to the senses, the realm of matter, as belo
nging to the world. In doing so, man places himself within the contrast of s
pirit and matter. He must do so all the more because his own body belongs to
the material world. Thus the "I" belongs to the realm of spirit, as part of
it; the material things and events which are perceived by the senses belong
to the "world." All the problems connected with spirit and matter, man find
s again in the fundamental riddle of his own nature. Monism pays attention o
nly to the unity and tries either to deny or to efface the contrasts, which
are there nevertheless. Neither of these two views is satisfactory, for they
do not do justice to the facts. Dualism sees spirit (I) and matter (world)
as two fundamentally different entities and cannot, therefore, understand ho
w they can interact upon each other. How should spirit know what goes on in
matter, if the essential nature of matter is quite alien to spirit? And how,
in these circumstances, should spirit be able to act upon matter, in order
to transform its intentions into actions? The most clever and the most absur
d hypotheses have been put forward to solve these problems. But, so far, mon
ism has fared no better. Up to now it has tried to justify itself in three d
ifferent ways. Either it denies spirit and becomes materialism; or it denies
matter and seeks its salvation in spiritualism11; or it maintains that sinc
e even in the simplest entities in the world spirit and matter are indivisib
ly bound together, there is no need for surprise if these two kinds of exist
ence are both present in the human being, for they are never found apart.
Materialism12 can never arrive at a satisfactory explanation of the world. F
or every attempt at an explanation must of necessity begin with man's formin
g thoughts about the phenomena of the world. Materialism, therefore, takes i
ts start from thoughts about matter or material processes. In doing so, it s
traightway confronts two different kinds of facts, namely, the material worl
d and the thoughts about it. The materialist tries to understand thoughts by
regarding them as a purely material process. He believes that thinking take
s place in the brain much in the same way that digestion takes place in the
animal organs. Just as he ascribes to matter mechanical and organic effects,
so he also attributes to matter, in certain circumstances, the ability to t
hink. He forgets that in doing this he has merely shifted the problem to ano
ther place. Instead of to himself, he ascribes to matter the ability to thin
k. And thus he is back again at his starting-point. How does matter come to
reflect about its own nature! Why is it not simply satisfied with itself and
with its existence? The materialist has turned his attention away from the
definite subject, from our own I, and has arrived at a vague, indefinite ima
ge. And here again, the same problem comes to meet him. The materialistic vi
ew is unable to solve the problem; it only transfers it to another place.
How does the matter stand with the spiritualistic view? The extreme spiritua
list denies to matter its independent existence and regards it merely as pro
duct of spirit. But when he tries to apply this view of the world to the sol
ution of the riddle of his own human nature, he finds himself in a corner. C
onfronting the I, which can be placed on the side of spirit, there stands, w
ithout any mediation, the physical world. No spiritual approach to it seems
possible; it has to be perceived and experienced by the I by means of materi
al processes. Such material processes the "I" does not find in itself if it
regards its own nature as having only spiritual validity. The physical world
is never found in what it works out spiritually. It seems as if the "I" wou
ld have to admit that the world would remain closed to it if it did not esta
blish a non-spiritual relation to the world. Similarly, when we come to be a
ctive, we have to translate our intentions into realities with the help of m
aterial substances and forces. In other words, we are dependent upon the out
er world. The most extreme spiritualist - or rather, the thinker who, throug
h absolute idealism, appears as an extreme spiritualist - is Johann Gottlieb
Fichte.13 He attempts to derive the whole edifice of the world from the "I.
" What he has actually accomplished is a magnificent thought-picture of the
world, without any content of experience. As little as it is possible for th
e materialist to argue the spirit away, just as little is it possible for th
e idealist to argue away the outer world of matter.
The first thing man perceives when he seeks to gain knowledge of his "I" is
the activity of this "I" in the conceptual elaboration of the world of ideas
. This is the reason why someone who follows a world-view which inclines tow
ard spiritualism may feel tempted, when looking at his own human nature, to
acknowledge nothing of spirit except his own world of ideas. In this way spi
ritualism becomes one-sided idealism. He does not reach the point of seeking
through the world of ideas a spiritual world; in the world of his ideas he
sees the spiritual world itself. As a result of this, he is driven to remain
with his world-view as if chained within the activity of his "I."
The view of Friedrich Albert Lange14 is a curious variety of idealism, put f
orward by him in his widely read History of Materialism. He suggests that th
e materialists are quite right in declaring all phenomena, including our thi
nking, to be the product of purely material processes, only, in turn, matter
and its processes are themselves the product of our thinking.
"The senses give us the effects of things, not true copies, much less the th
ings themselves. To these mere effects belong the senses themselves, as well
as the brain and the molecular vibrations which are thought to go on there.
"
That is, our thinking is produced by the material processes, and these by th
e thinking of the "I." Lange's philosophy, in other words, is nothing but th
e story - applied to concepts - of the ingenious Baron Miinnchhausen,15 who
holds himself up in the air by his own pigtail.
The third form of monism is the one which sees the two entities, matter and
spirit, already united in the simplest being (the atom). But nothing is gain
ed by this, either, for here again the question, which really originates in
our consciousness, is transferred to another place. How does the simple bein
g come to manifest itself in two different ways, if it is an indivisible uni
ty?
To all these viewpoints it must be objected that it is first and foremost in
our own consciousness that we meet the basic and original contrast. It is w
e who detach ourselves from the bosom of nature and contrast ourselves as "I
" with the "world." Goethe'" has given classic expression to this in his ess
ay On Nature, although at first glance his manner may be considered quite un
scientific: "We live in the midst of her (nature) yet are we strangers to he
r. Ceaselessly she speaks to us, and yet betrays not her secrets." But Goeth
e knew the other side too: "All human beings are in her and she is in all hu
man beings."
Just as true as it is that we have estranged ourselves from nature, so is it
also true that we feel: We are within nature and we belong to it. That whic
h lives in us can only be nature's own influence.
We must find the way back to nature again. A simple consideration can show u
s this way. We have, it is true, detached ourselves from nature, but we must
have taken something of it over with us, into our own being. This essence o
f nature in us we must seek out, and then we shall also find the connection
with it once again. Dualism neglects this. It considers the inner being of m
an as a spiritual entity quite alien to nature, and seeks somehow to hitch i
t onto nature. No wonder it cannot find the connecting link. We can only und
erstand nature outside us when we have first learned to recognize it within
us. What within us is akin to nature must be our guide. This points out our
path. We shall not speculate about the interaction of nature and spirit. But
we shall penetrate the depths of our own being, there to find those element
s which we took with us in our flight from nature.
Investigation of our own being must bring the solution of the riddle. We mus
t reach a point where we can say to ourselves: Here I am no longer merely "I
," here I encounter something which is more than "I."
I am aware that many who have read thus far will not have found my discussio
n "scientific" in the usual sense. To this I can only reply that so far I ha
ve not been concerned with scientific results of any kind, but with the simp
le description of what everyone experiences in his own consciousness. A few
expressions concerning the attempts to reconcile man's consciousness and the
world have been used only for the purpose of clarifying the actual facts. I
have, therefore, made no attempt to use the expressions "I," "spirit," "wor
ld," "nature," in the precise way that is usual in psychology and philosophy
. Ordinary consciousness is unaware of the sharp distinctions made by the sc
iences, and up to this point it has only been a matter of describing the fac
ts of everyday conditions. I am concerned, not with how science, so far, has
interpreted consciousness, but with how we experience it in daily life.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
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