Philosophy 版 (精华区)
发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Knowledge of Freedom III
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日02:15:08 星期四), 站内信件
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY
The Knowledge of Freedom
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III
THINKING IN THE SERVICE OF UNDERSTANDING THE WORLD
When I see how a billiard ball, when struck, communicates its motion to anot
her ball, I remain entirely without influence on the course of this event wh
ich I observe. The direction and velocity of the second ball is determined b
y the direction and velocity of the first. As long as I do no more than obse
rve, I cannot say anything about the motion of the second ball until it actu
ally moves. The situation alters if I begin to reflect on the content of my
observation. The purpose of my reflection is to form concepts of the event.
I bring the concept of an elastic ball into connection with certain other co
ncepts of mechanics, and take into consideration the special circumstances p
revailing in this particular instance. In other words, to the action taking
place without my doing, I try to add a second action which unfolds in the co
nceptual sphere. The latter is dependent on me. This is shown by the fact th
at I could rest content with the observation and forgo all search for concep
ts if I had no need of them. If, however, this need is present, then I am no
t satisfied until I have brought the concepts ball, elasticity, motion, impa
ct, velocity, etc., into a certain connection, to which the observed process
is related in a definite way. As certain as it is that the event takes plac
e independently of me, so certain is it also that the conceptual process can
not take place without my doing it.
We shall consider later whether this activity of mine is really a product of
my own independent being or whether the modern physiologists are right who
say that we cannot think as we will, but that we must think exactly as the t
houghts and thought-connections present in our consciousness determine.17 Fo
r the time being we wish merely to establish the fact that we constantly fee
l compelled to seek for concepts and connections of concepts standing in a c
ertain relation to objects and events given independently of us. Whether thi
s activity is really ours, or whether we accomplish it according to an unalt
erable necessity, we shall leave aside for the moment. That at first sight i
t appears to be our activity is beyond doubt. We know with absolute certaint
y that we are not given the concepts together with the objects. That I mysel
f am the doer may be illusion, but to immediate observation this certainly a
ppears to be the case. The question here is: What do we gain by finding a co
nceptual counterpart to an event?
There is a profound difference between the ways in which, for me, the parts
of an event are related to one another before and after the discovery of the
corresponding concepts. Mere observation can follow the parts of a given ev
ent as they occur, but their connection remains obscure without the help of
concepts. I see the first billiard ball move toward the second in a certain
direction and with a definite velocity. I must wait for what will happen aft
er the impact, and again I can follow what happens only with my eyes. Let us
assume that at the moment the impact occurs someone obstructs my view of th
e field where the event takes place: then - as mere onlooker - I have no kno
wledge of what happens afterward. The situation is different if before my vi
ew was obstructed I had discovered the concepts corresponding to the nexus o
f events. In that case I can estimate what occurs, even when I am no longer
able to observe. An object or event which has only been observed does not of
itself reveal anything about its connection with other objects or events. T
his connection comes to light only when observation combines with thinking.
Observation and thinking are the two points of departure for all spiritual s
triving of man insofar as he is conscious of such striving. What is accompli
shed by ordinary human reason as well as by the most complicated scientific
investigations rests on these two fundamental pillars of our spirit. Philoso
phers have started from various primary antitheses: idea and reality, subjec
t and object, appearance and thing-in-itself, ego and non-ego, idea and will
, concept and matter, force and substance, the conscious and the unconscious
. It is easy to show, however, that all these antitheses must be preceded by
that of observation and thinking, as the one the most important for man.
Whatever principle we wish to advance, we must prove that somewhere we have
observed it, or express it in the form of a clear thought which can be re-th
ought by others. Every philosopher who begins to speak about his fundamental
principles must make use of the conceptual form, and thereby makes use of t
hinking. He therefore indirectly admits that for his activity he presupposes
thinking. Whether thinking or something else is the main element in the evo
lution of the world, we shall not decide as yet. But that without thinking t
he philosopher can gain no knowledge of the evolution of the world, is immed
iately clear. Thinking may play a minor part in the coming into being of wor
ld phenomena, but thinking certainly plays a major part in the coming into b
eing of a view about them.
As regards observation, it is due to our organization that we need it. For u
s, our thinking about a horse and the object horse are two separate things.
But we have access to the object only through observation. As little as we c
an form a concept of a horse by merely staring at it, just as little are we
able to produce a corresponding object by mere thinking.
In sequence of time, observation even precedes thinking. For even thinking w
e learn to know first by means of observation. It was essentially a descript
ion of an observation when, at the opening of this chapter, we gave an accou
nt of how thinking is kindled by an event and of how it goes beyond what is
given without its activity. Whatever enters the circle of our experiences we
first become aware of through observation. The contents of sensation, of pe
rception, of contemplation, of feelings, of acts of will, of the pictures of
dreams and fantasy, of representations, of concepts and ideas, of all illus
ions and hallucinations are given us through observation.
However, as object of observation, thinking differs essentially from all oth
er objects. The observation of a table or a tree occurs in me as soon as the
se objects appear within the range of my experience. But my thinking that go
es on about these things, I do not observe at the same time. I observe the t
able; the thinking about the table I carry out, but I do not observe it at t
he same moment. I would first have to transport myself to a place outside my
own activity if, besides observing the table, I wanted also to observe my t
hinking about the table. Whereas observation of things and events, and think
ing about them, are but ordinary occurrences filling daily life, the observa
tion of thinking itself is a sort of exceptional situation. This fact must b
e taken into account sufficiently when we come to determine the relation of
thinking to all other contents of observation. It is essential to be clear a
bout the fact that when thinking is observed the same procedure is applied t
o it as the one we normally apply to the rest of the world-content, only in
ordinary life we do not apply it to thinking.
There can, therefore, be no question of comparing thinking and feeling as ob
jects of observation. And the same could easily be shown concerning other ac
tivities of the human soul. Unlike thinking, they belong in the same sphere
as other observed objects and events. It is characteristic of the nature of
thinking that it is an activity directed solely upon the observed object and
not upon the thinking personality. This can already be seen from the way we
express our thoughts, as distinct from the way we express our feelings or a
cts of will in relation to objects. When I see an object and recognize it as
a table, generally I would not say: I am thinking of a table, but: This is
a table. But I would say: I am pleased with the table. In the first instance
I am not at all interested in pointing out that I have entered into any rel
ationship with the table, whereas in the second it is just this relationship
that matters. In saying: I am thinking of a table, I already enter the exce
ptional situation characterized above, where something is made an object of
observation which is always contained within our soul's activity, only norma
lly it is not made an object of observation.
It is characteristic of thinking that the thinker forgets thinking while doi
ng it. What occupies him is not thinking, but the object of thinking which h
e observes.
The first thing then, that we observe about thinking is that it is the unobs
erved element in our ordinary life of thought.
The reason we do not observe thinking in our daily life of thought is becaus
e it depends upon our own activity. What I myself do not bring about, enters
my field of observation as something objective. I find myself confronted by
it as by something that has come about independently of me; it comes to mee
t me; I must take it as the presupposition of my thinking process. While I r
eflect on the object, I am occupied with it, my attention is turned to it. T
his activity is, in fact, thinking contemplation. My attention is directed n
ot to my activity but to the object of this activity. In other words: while
I think, I do not look at my thinking which I produce, but at the object of
thinking which I do not produce.
I am even in the same position when I let the exceptional situation come abo
ut and think about my own thinking. I can never observe my present thinking,
but only afterward can I make into an object of thinking the experience I h
ave had of my thinking-process. If I wanted to observe my present thinking,
I would have to split myself into two persons: one to do the thinking, the o
ther to observe this thinking. This I cannot do. I can only accomplish it in
two separate acts. The thinking to be observed is never the one actually be
ing produced, but another one. Whether for this purpose I observe my own ear
lier thinking, or follow the thinking process of another person, or else, as
in the above example of the movements of the billiard balls, presuppose an
imaginary thinking process, makes no difference.
Two things that do not go together are actively producing something and conf
ronting this in contemplation. This is already shown in the First Book of Mo
ses. The latter represents God as creating the world in the first six days,
and only when the world is there is the possibility of contemplating it also
present: "And God saw everything that he had made and, behold, it was very
good." So it is also with our thinking. It must first be present before we c
an observe it.
The reason it is impossible for us to observe thinking when it is actually t
aking place, is also the reason it is possible for us to know it more direct
ly and more intimately than any other process in the world. It is just becau
se we ourselves bring it forth that we know the characteristic features of i
ts course, the manner in which the process takes place. What in the other sp
heres of observation can be found only indirectly: the relevant context and
the connection between the individual objects - in the case of thinking is k
nown to us in an absolutely direct way. Off-hand, I do not know why, for my
observation, thunder follows lightning, but from the content of the two conc
epts I know immediately why my thinking connects the concept of thunder with
the concept of lightning. Naturally here it does not matter whether I have
correct concepts of thunder and lightning. The connection between those conc
epts I have is clear to me, and indeed this is the case through the concepts
themselves.
This transparent clarity of the process of thinking is quite independent of
our knowledge of the physiological basis of thinking. I speak here of thinki
ng insofar as it presents itself to observation of our spiritual activity. H
ow one material process in my brain causes or influences another while I car
ry out a line of thought, does not come into consideration at all. What I se
e when I observe thinking is not what process in my brain connects the conce
pt of lightning with the concept of thunder, but I see what motivates me to
bring the two concepts into a particular relationship. My observation of thi
nking shows me that there is nothing that directs me in my connecting one th
ought with another, except the content of my thoughts; I am not directed by
the material processes in my brain. In a less materialistic age than ours th
is remark would of course be entirely superfluous. Today however, when there
are people who believe: When we know what matter is, we shall also know how
matter thinks, - it has to be said that it is possible to speak about think
ing without entering the domain of brain physiology at the same time. Today
many people find it difficult to grasp the concept of thinking in its purity
. Anyone who wants to contrast the representation of thinking I have here de
veloped, with Cabanis'18 statement, "The brain secretes thoughts as the live
r does gall or the spittle-glands spittle, etc.," simply does not know what
I am talking about. He tries to find thinking by means of a mere process of
observation such as we apply to other objects that make up the content of th
e world. He cannot find it in this manner because as I have shown, it eludes
normal observation. Whoever cannot overcome materialism lacks the ability t
o bring about in himself the exceptional situation described above, which br
ings to his consciousness what remains unconscious in all other spiritual ac
tivities. If a person does not have the good will to place himself in this s
ituation, then one can no more speak to him about thinking than one can spea
k about color to a person who is blind. However, he must not believe that we
consider physiological processes to be thinking. He cannot explain thinking
because he simply does not see it.
However, one possessing the ability to observe thinking, - and with goodwill
every normally organized person has this ability, - this observation is the
most important he can make. For he observes something which he himself brin
gs to existence; he finds himself confronted not by a foreign object, to beg
in with, but by his own activity. He knows how what he observes comes to be.
He sees through the connections and relations. A firm point is attained fro
m which, with well-founded hope, one can seek for the explanation of the res
t of the world's phenomena.
The feeling of possessing such a firm point caused the founder of modern phi
losophy, Renatus Cartesius,19 to base the whole of human knowledge on the pr
inciple, I think, therefore I am. All other things, all other events are pre
sent independent of me. Whether they are there as truth or illusion or dream
I know not. Only one thing do I know with absolute certainty, for I myself
bring it to its sure existence: my thinking. Perhaps it also has some other
origin as well, perhaps it comes from God or from elsewhere, but that it is
present in the sense that I myself bring it forth, of that I am certain. Car
tesius had, to begin with, no justification for giving his statement any oth
er meaning. He could maintain only that within the whole world content it is
in my thinking that I grasp myself within that activity which is most essen
tially my own. What is meant by the attached therefore I am, has been much d
ebated. It can have a meaning in one sense only. The simplest assertion I ca
n make about something is that it is, that it exists. How this existence can
be further defined I cannot say straight away about anything that comes to
meet me. Each thing must first be studied in its relation to others before i
t can be determined in what sense it can be said to exist. An event that com
es to meet me may be a set of perceptions, but it could also be a dream, a h
allucination, and so forth. In short, I am unable to say in what sense it ex
ists. I cannot gather this from the event in itself, but I shall learn it wh
en I consider the event in its relation to other things. From this, however,
I can, again, learn no more than how it is related to these other things. M
y search only reaches solid ground if I find an object which exists in a sen
se which I can derive from the object itself. As thinker I am such an object
, for I give my existence the definite, self-dependent content of the activi
ty of thinking. Having reached this, I can go on from here and ask: Do the o
ther objects exist in the same or in some other sense?
When thinking is made the object of observation, to the rest of the elements
to be observed is added something which usually escapes attention; but the
manner in which the other things are approached by man is not altered. One i
ncreases the number of observed objects, but not the number of methods of ob
servation. While we are observing the other things, there mingles in the uni
versal process - in which I now include observation - one process which is o
verlooked. Something different from all other processes is present, but is n
ot noticed. But when I observe my thinking, no such unnoticed element is pre
sent. For what now hovers in the background is, again, nothing but thinking.
The observed object is qualitatively the same as the activity directed upon
it. And that is another characteristic feature of thinking. When we observe
it, we do not find ourselves compelled to do so with the help of something
qualitatively different, but can remain within the same element.
When I weave an object, given independently of me, into my thinking, then I
go beyond my observation, and the question is: Have I any right to do so? Wh
y do I not simply let the object act upon me? In what way is it possible tha
t my thinking could be related to the object? These are questions which ever
yone who reflects on his own thought processes must put to himself. They cea
se to exist when one thinks about thinking. We do not add anything foreign t
o thinking, and consequently do not have to justify such an addition.
Schelling20 says: "To gain knowledge of nature means to create nature." If t
hese words of the bold nature-philosopher are taken literally, we should hav
e to renounce forever all knowledge of nature. For after all, nature is ther
e already, and in order to create it a second time, one must know the princi
ples according to which it originated. From the nature already in existence
one would have to learn the conditions of its existence in order to apply th
em to the nature one wanted to create. But this learning, which would have t
o precede the creating, would, however, be knowing nature, and would remain
this even if, after the learning, no creation took place. Only a nature not
yet in existence could be created without knowing it beforehand.
What is impossible with regard to nature: creating before knowing, we achiev
e in the case of thinking. If we wanted to wait and not think until we had f
irst learned to know thinking, then we would never think at all. We have to
plunge straight into thinking in order to be able, afterward, to know thinki
ng by observing what we ourselves have done. We ourselves first create an ob
ject when we observe thinking. All other objects have been created without o
ur help.
Against my sentence, We must think before we can contemplate thinking, someo
ne might easily set another sentence as being equally valid: We cannot wait
with digesting, either, until we have observed the process of digestion. Thi
s objection would be similar to the one made by Pascal21 against Cartesius,
when he maintained that one could also say: I go for a walk, therefore I am.
Certainly I must resolutely get on with digesting before I have studied the
physiological process of digestion. But this could only be compared with th
e contemplation of thinking if, after having digested, I were not to contemp
late it with thinking, but were to eat and digest it. It is, after all, not
without significance that whereas digestion cannot become the object of dige
stion, thinking can very well become the object of thinking.
This, then, is beyond doubt: In thinking we are grasping a corner of the uni
versal process, where our presence is required if anything is to come about.
And, after all, this is just the point. The reason things are so enigmatica
l to me is that I do not participate in their creation. I simply find them t
here, whereas in the case of thinking I know how it is made. This is why a m
ore basic starting point than thinking, from which to consider all else in t
he world, does not exist.
Here I should mention another widely current error which prevails with regar
d to thinking. It consists in this, that it is said: Thinking, as it is in i
tself, we never encounter. That thinking which connects the observations we
make of our experiences and weaves them into a network of concepts, is not a
t all the same as that thinking which later we extract from the objects we h
ave observed and then make the object of our consideration. What we first un
consciously weave into things is something quite different from what we cons
ciously extract from them afterward.
To draw such conclusions is not to see that in this way it is impossible to
escape from thinking. It is absolutely impossible to come out of thinking if
one wants to consider it. When one distinguishes an unconscious thinking fr
om a later conscious thinking, then one must not forget that this distinctio
n is quite external and has nothing to do with thinking as such. I do not in
the least alter a thing by considering it with my thinking. I can well imag
ine that a being with quite differently organized sense organs and with a di
fferently functioning intelligence would have a quite different representati
on of a horse from mine, but I cannot imagine that my own thinking becomes s
omething different because I observe it. What I observe is what I myself bri
ng about. What my thinking looks like to an intelligence different from mine
is not what we are speaking about now; we are speaking about what it looks
like to me. In any case, the picture of my thinking in another intelligence
cannot be truer than my own picture of it. Only if I were not myself the thi
nking being, but thinking confronted me as the activity of a being foreign t
o me, could I say that my picture of thinking appeared in quite a definite w
ay, and that I could not know what in itself the thinking of the beings was
like.
So far there is not the slightest reason to view my own thinking from a stan
dpoint different from the one applied to other things. After all, I consider
the rest of the world by means of thinking. How should I make of my thinkin
g an exception?
With this I consider that I have sufficiently justified making thinking my s
tarting point in my approach to an understanding of the world. When Archimed
es22 had discovered the lever, he thought that with its help he could lift t
he whole cosmos from its hinges if only he could find a point upon which he
could support his instrument. He needed something that was supported by itse
lf, that was not carried by anything else. In thinking we have a principle w
hich exists by means of itself. From this principle let us attempt to unders
tand the world. Thinking we can understand through itself. So the question i
s only whether we can also understand other things through it.
I have so far spoken of thinking without considering its vehicle, man's cons
ciousness. Most present-day philosophers would object: Before there can be t
hinking, there must be consciousness. Therefore, one should begin, not from
thinking, but from consciousness. No thinking can exist without consciousnes
s. To them I must reply: If I want to have an explanation of what relation e
xists between thinking and consciousness, I must think about it. In doing so
I presuppose thinking. To this could be said: When the philosopher wants to
understand consciousness he makes use of thinking, and to that extent presu
pposes it, but in the ordinary course of life thinking does arise within con
sciousness and, therefore, presupposes this. If this answer were given to th
e World Creator who wished to create thinking, it would no doubt be justifie
d. One naturally cannot let thinking arise without first having brought abou
t consciousness. However, the philosopher is not concerned with the creation
of the world, but with the understanding of it. Therefore he has to find th
e starting point, not for the creation, but for the understanding of the wor
ld. I consider it most extraordinary that a philosopher should be reproached
for being concerned first and foremost about the correctness of his princip
les, rather than turning straight to the objects he wants to understand. The
World Creator had to know, above all, how to find a vehicle for thinking; t
he philosopher has to find a secure foundation for his understanding of what
already exists. How can it help us to start from consciousness and apply th
inking to it, if first we do not know whether it is possible to reach any ex
planation of things by means of thinking?
We must first consider thinking quite impartially, without reference to a th
inking subject or a thought object. For in subject and object we already hav
e concepts formed by thinking. There is no denying: Before anything else a c
an be understood, thinking must be understood. To deny this is to fail to re
alize that man is not a first link in creation, but the last. Therefore, for
an explanation of the world by means of concepts, one cannot start from the
first elements of existence, but must begin with what is nearest to us and
is most intimately ours. We cannot at one bound transport ourselves to the b
eginning of the world, in order to begin our investigations there; we must s
tart from the present moment and see whether we cannot ascend from the later
to the earlier. As long as geology spoke in terms of assumed revolutions in
order to explain the present condition of the earth, it groped in darkness.
It was only when it made its beginnings from the investigations of those pr
ocesses at present at work on the earth, and from these drew conclusions abo
ut the past, that it gained a secure foundation. As long as philosophy assum
es all sorts of principles such as atom, motion, matter, will, the unconscio
us, it will get nowhere. Only when the philosopher recognizes as his absolut
e first that which came as the absolute last, can he reach his goal. But thi
s absolute last in world evolution is Thinking.
There are people who say: Whether or not our thinking is right in itself can
not be established with certainty, after all. And to this extent the point o
f departure is still a doubtful one. It would be just as sensible to raise d
oubts as to whether in itself a tree is right or wrong. Thinking is a fact,
and to speak of the rightness or wrongness of a fact has no sense. At most,
I can have doubts as to whether thinking is being rightly applied, just as I
can doubt whether a certain tree supplies a wood suitable for making tools
for a particular purpose. To show to what extent the application of thinking
to the world is right or wrong, is just the task of this book. I can unders
tand anyone doubting whether we can ascertain anything about the world by me
ans of thinking, but it is incomprehensible to me how anyone can doubt the r
ightness of thinking in itself.
Addition to the Revised Edition (1918): In the preceding discussion, the sig
nificant difference between thinking and all other activities of the soul ha
s been referred to as a fact which reveals itself to a really unprejudiced o
bservation. Unless this unprejudiced observation is achieved, against this d
iscussion one is tempted to raise objections such as these: When I think abo
ut a rose, then after all, this also is only an expression of a relation of
my "I" to the rose, just as when I feel the beauty of the rose. In the case
of thinking, a relation between "I" and object exists in the same way as in
the case of feeling or perceiving. To make this objection is to fail to real
ize that it is only in the activity of thinking that the "I" knows itself to
be completely at one with that which is active - going into all the ramific
ations of the activity. In the case of no other soul activity is this comple
tely so. When, for example, a pleasure is felt, a more sensitive observation
can quite easily detect to what extent the "I" knows itself to be one with
something active, and to what extent there is something passive in it so tha
t the pleasure merely happens to the "I." And this is the case with the othe
r soul activities. But one should not confuse "having thought-images" with t
he working through of thought by means of thinking. Thought-images can arise
in the soul in the same way as dreams or vague intimations. This is not thi
nking. - To this could be said: If this is what is meant by thinking, then t
he element of will is within thinking, and so we have to do not merely with
thinking, but also with the will within thinking. However, this would only j
ustify one in saying: Real thinking must always be willed. But this has noth
ing to do with the characterization of thinking as given in this discussion.
The nature of thinking may be such that it must necessarily always be wille
d; the point is that everything that is willed is - while being willed - sur
veyed by the "I" as an activity entirely its own. Indeed it must be said tha
t just because this is the nature of thinking, it appears to the observer as
willed through and through. Anyone who really takes the trouble to understa
nd all that has to be considered in order to reach a judgment about thinking
, cannot fail to recognize that this soul activity does have the unique char
acter we have described here.
A personality highly appreciated as a thinker by the author of this book, ha
s objected that it is impossible to speak about thinking as is done here, be
cause what one believes one is observing as active thinking only appears to
be so. In reality one is observing only the results of an unconscious activi
ty, which is the foundation of thinking. Only because this unconscious activ
ity is not observed does the illusion arise that the observed thinking exist
s through itself, just as when in an illumination made by a rapid succession
of electric sparks one believes one is seeing a continuous movement. This o
bjection, too, rests on an inaccurate examination of the facts. To make it m
eans that one has not taken into consideration that it is the "I" itself, st
anding within thinking, that observes its own activity. The "I" would have t
o stand outside thinking to be deluded as in the case of an illumination wit
h a rapid succession of electric sparks. Indeed one could say: To make such
a comparison is to deceive oneself forcibly, like someone who, seeing a movi
ng light, insisted that it was being freshly lit by an unknown hand at every
point where it appeared. - No, whoever wants to see in thinking anything ot
her than a surveyable activity brought about within the "I," must first make
himself blind to the plain facts that are there for the seeing, in order to
be able to set up a hypothetical activity as the basis of thinking. He who
does not so blind himself cannot fail to recognize that everything he "think
s into" thinking in this manner takes him away from the essence of thinking.
Unprejudiced observation shows that nothing belongs to thinking's own natur
e that is not found in thinking itself. If one leaves the realm of thinking,
one cannot come to what causes it.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
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