Philosophy 版 (精华区)
发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Knowledge of Freedom IV
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日02:16:11 星期四), 站内信件
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY
The Knowledge of Freedom
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IV
THE WORLD AS PERCEPTION
Concepts and ideas arise through thinking. What a concept is cannot be state
d in words. Words can do no more than draw attention to our concepts. When s
omeone sees a tree, his thinking reacts to his observation, an ideal counter
part is added to the object, and he considers the object and the ideal count
erpart as belonging together. When the object disappears from his field of o
bservation, only the ideal counterpart of it remains. This latter is the con
cept of the object. The further our range of experience is widened, the grea
ter becomes the sum of our concepts. But a concept is never found isolated.
Concepts combine to form a totality built up according to inherent laws. The
concept "organism" combines, for example, with those of "gradual developmen
t, growth." Other concepts formed of single objects merge completely. All co
ncepts that I form of lions, merge into the general concept "lion." In this
way the single concepts unite in an enclosed conceptual system, in which eac
h concept has its special place. Ideas are not qualitatively different from
concepts. They are but concepts that are richer in content, more saturated a
nd comprehensive. At this particular point I must draw special attention to
the fact that thinking is my point of departure, and not concepts and ideas
which must first be gained by means of thinking. Concepts and ideas already
presuppose thinking. Therefore, what I have said about the nature of thinkin
g, that it exists through itself, that it is determined by nothing but itsel
f, cannot simply be carried over and applied to concepts. (I mention this at
this point explicitly because it is here that my difference with Hegel lies
. For Hegel, the concept is the primary and original.)
The concept cannot be gained from observation. This can already be seen from
the fact that the growing human being slowly and gradually forms concepts c
orresponding to the objects surrounding him. The concepts are added to obser
vation.
A much-read contemporary philosopher, Herbert Spencer,23 describes the menta
l process which we carry out in response to observation, in the following wa
y:
"If, when walking through the fields one day in September, we hear a sound a
few yards in advance, and, on observing the ditch-side where it occurs, see
the grass move, we shall probably turn toward the spot to learn by what thi
s sound and motion are produced. As we approach, a partridge flutters in the
ditch; on seeing this our curiosity is satisfied; we have what we call an e
xplanation of the phenomena. This explanation, please notice, amounts to thi
s: Because we have experienced countless times in life that a disturbance of
the stationary position of small bodies is accompanied by the movement of o
ther bodies existing among them, and because we have therefore generalized t
he relation between such disturbances and such movements, we consider this p
articular disturbance explained as soon as we find it to be an example of ju
st this relationship."24
A closer examination gives a very different result from what is described ab
ove. When I hear a sound, the first thing I do is to find the concept that c
orresponds to this observation. It is this concept that takes me beyond the
sound. Someone who did not reflect further would simply hear the sound and b
e content with that. But, because I reflect, it becomes clear to me that I h
ave to understand the sound as an effect. It is therefore only when I connec
t the concept of effect with the perception of the sound that I am induced t
o go beyond the single observation and look for the cause. The concept of ef
fect calls up that of cause; I then look for the object which is the cause,
and in this case I find it to be the partridge. But these concepts, cause an
d effect, I can never gain by mere observation, however many instances I may
have observed. Observation calls up thinking, and it is thinking that then
shows me how to fit one individual occurrence to another.
If one demands of a "strictly objective science" that it must take its conte
nt from observation alone, then one must at the same time require that it is
to desist from all thinking. For by its very nature, thinking goes beyond t
he observed object.
We must now pass from thinking itself to the being who thinks, for it is thr
ough the thinker that thinking is combined with observation. Human conscious
ness is the stage upon which concept and observation meet one another and be
come united. In saying this, we have at the same time characterized human co
nsciousness. It is the mediator between thinking and observation. Insofar as
the human being observes an object, it appears to him as given; insofar as
he thinks, he appears to himself as active. He regards what comes to meet hi
m as object, and himself as thinking subject. While he directs his thinking
to the observation, he is conscious of the object; while he directs his thin
king to himself he is conscious of himself, or is self-conscious. Human cons
ciousness of necessity, must be self-conscious at the same time, because it
is a thinking consciousness. For when thinking turns its attention to its ow
n activity, then its own essential being, that is, its subject, is its objec
t as well.
It must, however, not be overlooked that it is only with the help of thinkin
g that we can define ourselves as subject and contrast ourselves with object
s. For this reason, thinking must never be understood as a merely subjective
activity. Thinking is beyond subject and object. It forms these two concept
s, just as it forms all others. When therefore as thinking subject, we refer
a concept to an object, we must not understand this reference as something
merely subjective. It is not the subject that makes the reference, but think
ing. The subject does not think because it is subject; rather it appears to
itself as a subject because it is able to think. The activity carried out by
man as a thinking being is, therefore, not a merely subjective activity. Ra
ther it is neither subjective nor objective; it is an activity that goes bey
ond both these concepts. I ought never to say that my individual subject thi
nks; in fact, my subject exists by the very grace of thinking. Thinking, the
refore, is an element that takes me beyond myself and unites me with the obj
ects. Yet at the same time it separates me from them, inasmuch as it sets me
, as subject, over against them.
Man's twofold nature is due to this: he thinks, and in so doing encompasses
himself and the rest of the world; but at the same time, it is also by means
of thinking that he defines himself as an individual who confronts the obje
cts.
The next step is to ask ourselves: How does the other element, - that in con
sciousness meets with thinking - which we have so far simply called the obje
ct of observation, enter our consciousness?
In order to answer this question, we must separate from our field of observa
tion all that has been brought into it by thinking. For the content of our c
onsciousness at any moment is already permeated with concepts in the most va
ried ways.
We must imagine a being with fully developed human intelligence suddenly wak
ing into existence out of nothing, and confronting the world. Everything of
which it was aware before its thinking activity began, would be the pure con
tent of observation. The world would then reveal to this being nothing but t
he mere disconnected aggregate of objects of sensation: colors, sounds, sens
ations of pressure, warmth, taste and smell, then feelings of pleasure and d
ispleasure. This aggregate is the content of pure, unthinking observation. O
ver against it stands thinking, ready to unfold its activity if a point of a
ttack can be found. Experience soon shows that it is found. Thinking is able
to draw threads from one element of observation to another. It connects def
inite concepts with these elements and thereby brings about a relationship b
etween them. We have already seen above how a sound that comes to meet us is
connected with another observation by our identifying the former as the eff
ect of the latter.
If we now remind ourselves that the activity of thinking is never to be unde
rstood as a subjective activity, then we shall not be tempted to believe tha
t such relationships, established by thinking, have merely a subjective valu
e.
Our next task is to discover by means of thinking reflection what relation t
he above-mentioned directly given content of observation has to our consciou
s subject.
The varied ways of using words make it necessary for me to come to an agreem
ent with my readers concerning the use of a word which I shall have to emplo
y in what follows. I shall use the word perceptions for the immediate object
s of sensation enumerated above, insofar as the conscious subject becomes aw
are of them through observation. It is therefore not the process of observat
ion, but the object of observation which I call perception.25
I do not choose the word sensation because in physiology this has a definite
meaning which is narrower than that of my concept of perception. I can call
a feeling in myself a perception, but not a sensation in the physiological
sense. But I also become aware of my feelings by their becoming perceptions
for me. And the way we become aware of our thinking through observation is s
uch that we can also call thinking, as it first comes to the notice of our c
onsciousness, a perception.
The naive man considers his perceptions, in the sense in which they directly
seem to appear to him, as things having an existence completely independent
of himself. When he sees a tree he believes, to begin with, that it stands
in the form which he sees, with the colors of its various parts, etc., there
on the spot toward which his gaze is directed. When in the morning he sees
the sun appear as a disk on the horizon and follows the course of this disk,
his opinion is that all this actually exists (by itself) and occurs just as
he observes it. He clings to this belief until he meets with further percep
tions which contradict those he first had. The child who has as yet no exper
ience of distance grasps at the moon, and does not correct his first impress
ion as to the real distance until a second perception contradicts the first.
Every extension of the circle of my perceptions compels me to correct my pi
cture of the world. We see this in everyday life, as well as in the intellec
tual development of mankind. That picture which the ancients made for themse
lves of the relation of the earth to the sun and to the other heavenly bodie
s had to be replaced through Copernicus by a different one, because theirs d
id not accord with perceptions which were unknown in those early times. A ma
n who had been born blind said, when operated on by Dr. Franz,25a that the i
dea of the size of objects which he had formed by his sense of touch before
his operation, was a very different one. He had to correct his tactual perce
ptions by his visual perceptions.
Why are we compelled to make these constant corrections of our observations?
A simple reflection will answer this question. When I stand at one end of an
avenue, the trees at the far end seem smaller and nearer together than thos
e where I stand. The picture of my perception changes when I change the plac
e from which I am looking. The form in which it appears to me, therefore, is
dependent on a condition which belongs not to the object, but to me, the pe
rceiver. It is all the same to the avenue where I stand. But the picture of
it which I receive depends essentially on the place where I stand. In the sa
me way, it is all the same to the sun and the planetary system that human be
ings happen to consider them from the earth; but the perception-picture of t
he heavens which human beings have is determined by the fact that they inhab
it the earth. This dependence of our perception-picture upon our place of ob
servation is the easiest one to grasp. Matters already become more difficult
when we learn how our perceptions are dependent on our bodily and spiritual
organization. The physicist shows us that within the space in which we hear
a sound, vibrations of the air occur, and also that in the body in which we
seek the origin of the sound, vibrating movements of its parts will be foun
d. We perceive this movement as sound, but only if we have a normally constr
ucted ear. Without this, the whole world would be forever silent for us. Fro
m physiology we know that there are people who perceive nothing of the splen
dor of color surrounding us. Their perception-picture shows only degrees of
light and dark. Others are blind to one color, e.g., red. Their picture of t
he world lacks this shade of color, and therefore is actually a different on
e from that of the average person. I would call the dependence of my percept
ion-picture on my place of observation, a mathematical one, and its dependen
ce on my organization a qualitative one. The first determines the proportion
s of size and mutual distances of my perceptions, the second their quality.
The fact that I see a red surface as red - this qualitative determination -
depends on the organization of my eye.
My perception-pictures, then, are subjective to begin with. Knowledge of the
subjective character of our perceptions may easily lead to doubt that there
is any objective basis for them at all. If we know that a perception, for e
xample, that of the color red or of a certain tone, is not possible without
a specific structure of our organism, it is easy to believe that it has no e
xistence at all apart from our subjective organization, that without the act
of perceiving - the objective of which it is - it would have no kind of exi
stence. This view found a classical exponent in George Berkeley.26 His opini
on was that man, from the moment he realizes the significance the subject ha
s for perception, is no longer able to believe in the presence of a world wi
thout the conscious spirit. He said:
"Some truths there are so near and obvious to the mind that a man need only
open his eyes to see them. Such I take this important one to be, viz., that
all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth - in a word, all those bo
dies which compose the mighty frame of the world - have not any subsistence
without a mind; that their being is to be perceived or known; that, conseque
ntly, so long as they are not actually perceived by me, or do not exist in m
y mind or that of any other created spirit, they must either have no existen
ce at all or else subsist in the mind of some Eternal Spirit."
According to this view, nothing remains of the perception, if one disregards
the fact of its being perceived. There is no color when none is seen, no so
und when none is heard. Apart from the act of perception, extension, form an
d motion exist as little as do color and sound. Nowhere do we see bare exten
sion or form; these are always connected with color or some other quality un
questionably dependent on our subjectivity. If these latter disappear when o
ur perception of them disappears, then the former, being bound up with them,
must likewise disappear.
To the objection that even if figure, color, sound, etc., have no other exis
tence than the one within the act of perception, yet there must be things th
at exist apart from consciousness and to which the conscious perception pict
ures are similar, the above view would answer that a color can be similar on
ly to a color, a figure only to a figure. Our perceptions can be similar onl
y to our perceptions, and to nothing else. What we call an object is also no
thing but a collection of perceptions which are connected in a particular wa
y. If I strip a table of its form, extension, color, etc., - in short, of al
l that is only my perception-then nothing else remains. If this view is foll
owed to its logical conclusion, it leads to the assertion that the objects o
f my perceptions are present only through me and, indeed, only in as far as,
and as long as I perceive them. They disappear with the act of perceiving t
hem, and have no meaning apart from it. But apart from my perceptions I know
of no objects and cannot know of any.
No objection can be made to this assertion as long as in general I merely ta
ke into account the fact that the perception is partially determined by the
organization of my subject. It would be very different if we were able to es
timate what function our perceiving has in bringing about a perception. We s
hould then know what happens to the perception during the act of perceiving,
and could also determine how much of it must already have existed before it
was perceived.
This leads us to turn our consideration from the object of perception to its
subject. I perceive not only other things; I also perceive myself. The imme
diate content of the perception of myself is the fact that I am the stable e
lement in contrast to the continually coming and going perception-pictures.
The perception of the I can always come up in my consciousness while I am ha
ving other perceptions. When I am absorbed in the perception of an object th
at is given, then, for the time being, I am conscious only of this object. T
o this, the perception of my self can come. I am then conscious, not only of
the object, but also of my own personality, which confronts the object and
observes it. I do not merely see a tree, but I also know that it is I who se
e it. I also realize that something takes place in me while I observe the tr
ee. When the tree disappears from my field of vision, an after-effect of thi
s process remains in my consciousness: an image of the tree. This image beca
me united with my self during my observation. My self has become enriched; i
ts content has taken a new element into itself. This element I call my repre
sentation of the tree. I should never be in a position to speak of represent
ations if I did not experience them in the perception of my own self. Percep
tions would come and go; I should let them slip by. Only because I perceive
my self, and am aware that with each perception the content of my self also
changes, do I find myself compelled to bring the observation of the object i
nto connection with the changes in my own condition, and to speak of my repr
esentation.
I perceive the representation in my self in the same sense as I perceive col
or, sound, etc., in other objects. Now I am also able to make the distinctio
n that I call those other objects that confront me, outer world, whereas the
content of my self-perception I call inner world. Misunderstanding of the r
elationship between representation and object has led to the greatest mistak
es in modern philosophy. The perception of a change in us, the modification
experienced in the self, has been thrust into the foreground and the object
which causes this modification is lost sight of altogether. It is said: We d
o not perceive the objects, but only our representations. I am supposed to k
now nothing of the table in itself, which is the object of my observation, b
ut only of the changes which occur in my self while I perceive the table. Th
is view should not be confused with that of Berkeley, mentioned above. Berke
ley maintains the subjective nature of the content of perceptions, but he do
es not say that I can know only of my own representations. He limits man's k
nowledge to his representations because, in his opinion, there are no object
s outside the act of representing. What I regard as a table is no longer pre
sent, according to Berkeley, when I cease to turn my gaze toward it. This is
why Berkeley lets our perceptions arise directly out of the omnipotence of
God. I see a table because God calls up this perception in me. For Berkeley,
therefore, there are no real beings other than God and human spirits. What
we call "world" is present only within spirits. For Berkeley, what the naive
man calls outer world, or physical nature, is not there. This view is contr
asted by the now predominant Kantian view"' which limits our knowledge to ou
r representations, not because it is convinced that there cannot be things i
n existence besides these representations, but because it believes us to be
so organized that we can experience only the modification in our own self, n
ot the thing-in-itself that causes this modification. This conclusion arises
from the view that I know only my representations, not that there is no exi
stence apart from them, but only that the subject cannot take such an existe
nce directly into itself; all it can do is merely through
"the medium of its subjective thoughts to imagine it, invent it, think it, c
ognize it, or perhaps also fail to cognize it."28
This view believes it expresses something absolutely certain, something that
is immediately obvious, in need of no proof.
"The first fundamental principle which the philosopher has to bring to clear
consciousness consists in the recognition that our knowledge, to begin with
, does not reach beyond our representations. Our representation is the only
thing we experience and learn to know directly and, just because we have dir
ect experience of it, even the most radical doubt cannot rob us of our knowl
edge. By contrast, the knowledge that goes beyond our representations - taki
ng this expression here in the widest possible sense, so that all physical h
appenings are included in it - is open to doubt. Hence, at the very beginnin
g of all philosophizing, all knowledge which goes beyond representations mus
t explicitly be set down as being open to doubt."
These are the opening sentences of Volkelt's book on Kant's Theory of Knowle
dge.29 What is put forward here as an immediate and self-evident truth is in
reality the result of a line of thought which runs as follows: The naive ma
n believes that the objects, just as he perceives them, are also present out
side his consciousness. Physics, physiology and psychology, however, seem to
show that for our perceptions our organization is necessary and that, there
fore, we cannot know about anything except what our organization transmits t
o us from the objects. Our perceptions therefore are modifications of our or
ganization, not things-in-themselves. The train of thought here indicated ha
s, in fact, been characterized by Eduard von Hartmann30 as the one which mus
t lead to the conviction that we can have a direct knowledge only of our own
representations.31 Outside our organisms we find vibrations of physical bod
ies and of air; these are sensed by us as sounds, and therefore it is conclu
ded that what we call sound is nothing but a subjective reaction of our orga
nisms to these movements in the external world. In the same way, color and w
armth are found to be merely modifications of our organisms. And, indeed, th
e view is held that these two kinds of perceptions are called forth in us th
rough effects or processes in the external world which are utterly different
from the experiences we have of warmth or of color. If these processes stim
ulate the nerves in my skin, I have the subjective perception of warmth; if
they happen to encounter the optic nerve, I perceive light and color. Light,
color and warmth, then, are the responses of my sensory nerves to external
stimuli. Even the sense of touch does not reveal to me the objects of the ou
ter world, but only conditions in myself. In the sense of modern physics, on
e must imagine that bodies consist of infinitely small particles, molecules,
and that these molecules are not in direct contact, but are at certain dist
ances from one another. Between them, therefore, is empty space. Across this
space they act on one another by attraction and repulsion. If I put my hand
on a body, the molecules of my hand by no means touch those of the body dir
ectly, but there remains a certain distance between body and hand, and what
I sense as the body's resistance is nothing other than the effect of the for
ce of repulsion which its molecules exert on my hand. I am completely extern
al to the body and perceive only its effects upon my organism.
These considerations have been supplemented by the theory of the so-called s
pecific nervous energy, which has been advanced by J. Miiller (1801-1958).32
According to this theory, each sense has the peculiarity that it responds t
o all external stimuli in one definite way only. If the optic nerve is stimu
lated, perception of light results, irrespective of whether the nerve is sti
mulated by what we call light, or by a mechanical pressure, or an electric c
urrent. On the other hand, the same external stimulus applied to different s
enses gives rise to different perceptions. This appears to show that our sen
se-organs can transmit only what occurs in themselves, but nothing from the
external world. They determine our perceptions, each according to its own na
ture.
Physiology also shows that there is no question of a direct knowledge of wha
t the objects cause to take place in our sense-organs. When the physiologist
traces the processes in our bodies, he discovers that already in the sense-
organs, the effects of the external vibrations are modified in the most mani
fold ways. This can be seen most clearly in the case of the eye and ear. Bot
h are very complicated organs which modify the external stimulus considerabl
y before they conduct it to the corresponding nerve. From the peripheral end
of the nerve the already modified stimulus is then led further to the brain
. Here at last the central organs are stimulated in their turn. From this th
e conclusion is drawn that the external process must have undergone a series
of transformations before it reaches consciousness. What goes on in the bra
in is connected by so many intermediate processes with the external process,
that any similarity to the latter is unthinkable. What the brain ultimately
transmits to the soul is neither external processes nor processes in the se
nse-organs, but only such as occur in the brain. But even these are not dire
ctly perceived by the soul; what we finally have in consciousness are not br
ain processes at all, but sensations. My sensation of red has absolutely no
similarity to the process which occurs in the brain when I sense the red. Th
e red is caused by the processes in the brain and appears again only as an e
ffect of this in the soul. This is why Hartmann says:33 "What the subject pe
rceives therefore is always only modifications of his own psychic states and
nothing else." When I have sensations, these are as yet far from being grou
ped into what I perceive as objects. For only single sensations can be trans
mitted to me by the brain. The sensations of hardness and softness are trans
mitted to me by the sense of touch, those of color and light by the sense of
sight. Yet all these can be found united in one and the same object. The un
ification must, therefore, be caused by the soul itself; this means that the
soul combines into bodies the separate sensations transmitted through the b
rain. My brain gives me separately and indeed along very different paths, th
e sensations of sight, touch and hearing, which the soul then combines into
the representation "trumpet." This last link (the representation of trumpet)
is the very first process to enter my consciousness. In it can no longer be
found anything of what is outside of me and originally made an impression o
n my senses. The external object has been entirely lost on the way to the br
ain and through the brain to the soul.
In the history of man's intellectual endeavor it would be hard to find anoth
er edifice of thought which has been put together with greater ingenuity and
yet which, on closer analysis, collapses into nothing. Let us look a little
closer at the way it has been built up. The starting point is taken from wh
at is given in naive consciousness, that is, from things as perceived. Then
it is shown that nothing of what belongs to these things would be present fo
r us had we no senses. No eye: no color. Therefore, the color is not yet pre
sent in what affects the eye. It arises first through the interaction of the
eye and the object. The latter must, therefore, be colorless. But neither i
s the color present in the eye, for what is present there is a chemical or p
hysical process which first has to be led by the optic nerve to the brain, a
nd there releases another process. This is not yet the color. The latter is
only called up in the soul through the process in the brain. As yet it does
not enter my consciousness, but is first placed by the soul on a body outsid
e. Here, finally, I believe that I perceive it. We have completed a circle.
We are conscious of a colored object. This is the starting point; here the b
uilding up of thoughts begins. If I had no eye, for me the object would be c
olorless. I cannot, therefore, place the color on the body. I start on a sea
rch for it. I look for it in the eye: in vain; in the nerve: in vain; in the
brain: in vain once more; in the soul: here I find it indeed, but not attac
hed to the body. I recover the colored body only there at the point from whi
ch I started. The circle is closed. I am confident that I recognize as a pro
duct of my soul what the naive man imagines to be present out there in space
.
As long as one remains here, everything seems to fit beautifully. But we mus
t start again from the beginning. Until now I have been dealing with the out
er perception, of which earlier, as naive man, I had a completely wrong opin
ion. I believed that just as I perceive it, it had an objective existence. B
ut now I have noticed that in the act of representing it, it disappears; tha
t it is only a modification of my soul condition. Is there any justification
for using it as a starting point in my consideration! Can I say of it that
it affects my soul? From now on I have to treat the table, of which earlier
I believed that it acted on me and brought about in me a representation of i
tself, as being itself a representation. From this it follows logically that
my sense-organs and the processes in them are also mere subjective manifest
ations. I have no right to speak of a real eye, but only of my representatio
n of eye. And the same holds good in regard to the nerves and the brain proc
ess, and no less in regard to what takes place in the soul itself, through w
hich, out of the chaos of manifold sensations, objects are supposed to be bu
ilt up. If I run through the steps of my act of cognition once more, presupp
osing the first line of thought to be correct, then the latter shows itself
to be a web of representations which, as such, could not act upon one anothe
r. I cannot say: My representation of the object affects my representation o
f the eye, and from this interaction the representation of color comes about
. Nor is there any need for saying this, for as soon as it is clear to me th
at my sense-organs and their activity, and my nerve and soul processes as we
ll, can also be given only through perception, then the described line of th
ought shows itself in its full impossibility. It is true that I can have no
perception without the corresponding sense-organ, but neither can I have the
sense-organ without perception. From my perception of the table I can go ov
er to the eye which sees it, and to the nerves in the skin which touch it, b
ut what takes place in these I can, again, learn only from perception. And t
here I soon notice that in the process which takes place in the eye there is
no trace of similarity to what I perceive as color. I cannot deny the exist
ence of my color perception by pointing to the process which takes place in
the eye during this perception. And just as little can I find the color in t
he nerve and brain processes; all I do is only add new perceptions, within t
he organism, to the first perception, which the naive man placed outside his
organism. I simply pass from one perception to another.
Apart from this there is an error in the whole conclusion of the line of tho
ught. I am able to follow what takes place in my organism up to the processe
s in my brain, even though my assumptions become more and more hypothetical
the nearer I get to the central processes in the brain. But the path of obse
rvation from outside ceases with what takes place in my brain, ceases, in fa
ct, with what I should observe if I could treat the brain with the assistanc
e and methods of physics and chemistry. The path of observation from within
begins with the sensation and continues up to the building up of objects out
of the material of sensation. In the transition from brain-process to sensa
tion, there is a gap in the path of observation.
This characteristic way of thinking, which describes itself as critical idea
lism, in contrast to the standpoint of naive consciousness which it calls na
ive realism, makes the mistake of characterizing one perception as represent
ation while taking another in the very same sense as does the naive realism
which it apparently refutes. Critical idealism wants to prove that perceptio
ns have the character of representations; in this attempt it accepts - in na
ive fashion - the perceptions belonging to the organism as objective, valid
facts, and, what is more, fails to see that it mixes up two spheres of obser
vation, between which it can find no mediation.
Critical idealism is able to refute naive realism only by itself assuming, i
n naive-realistic fashion, that one's own organism has objective existence.
As soon as the critical idealist becomes conscious of the complete similarit
y between the perceptions connected with one's own organism and those which
naive realism assumes to have objective existence, he can no longer rely on
the perceptions of the organism as being a safe foundation. He would have to
regard his own subjective organization also as a mere complex of representa
tions. But then the possibility ceases of regarding the content of the perce
ived world as a product of man's spiritual organization. One would have to a
ssume that the representation "color" was only a modification of the represe
ntation "eye." So-called critical idealism cannot be proved without borrowin
g something from naive realism. Naive realism can only be refuted by accepti
ng its assumptions - without testing them - in another sphere.
This much, then, is certain: Investigations within the sphere of perceptions
cannot prove critical idealism, and consequently cannot strip perceptions o
f their objective character.
Still less can the principle, "The perceived world is my representation," be
stated as if it were obvious and in need of no proof. Schopenhaue34 begins
his principal work, Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, The World as Will an
d Representation, with the words:
"The world is my representation - this is a truth which holds good for every
being that lives and cognizes, though man alone is able to bring it into re
flective, abstract consciousness. If he really does this, then he has attain
ed to philosophical self-consciousness. It then becomes clear and certain to
him that he does not know a sun or an earth, but always only an eye that se
es a sun, a hand that feels an earth; that the world which surrounds him is
only there as representation, that means throughout only in relation to some
thing else, to the one who represents, that is, to himself. If ever a truth
can be asserted a priori, this one can, for it expresses the form most gener
al of all possible and thinkable experiences, more general than time, or spa
ce, or causality, for all these presuppose it..."
The principle above: "The world is my representation," on which this is base
d, is, however, wrecked by the fact, already mentioned, that the eye and the
hand are perceptions in just the same sense as the sun and the earth. And i
f one used Schopenhauer's expressions in his own sense, one could object to
his principle: My eye that sees the sun and my hand that feels the earth are
my representations, just like the sun and the earth themselves. But that, w
ith this, the principle is cancelled out, is immediately obvious. For only m
y real eye and my real hand could have the representations "sun" and "earth"
as their modifications; my representations "eye" and "hand" cannot have the
m. But critical idealism can speak of representations only.
It is impossible by means of critical idealism to gain insight into what rel
ation perception has to representation. It is insensible to the distinction,
mentioned on page 85, of what happens to the perception while perceiving ta
kes place and what must be inherent in it before it is perceived. We must, t
herefore, attempt to gain this insight along another path.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
※ 来源:·哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn·[FROM: 天外飞仙]
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