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发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Knowledge of Freedom V
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日02:16:55 星期四), 站内信件
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY
The Knowledge of Freedom
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V
THE ACT OF KNOWING THE WORLD
From the foregoing considerations it follows that by investigating the conte
nt of our observation it is impossible to prove that our perceptions are rep
resentations. This proof is supposed to follow from the fact that if the pro
cess of perception takes place in the way it is imagined, according to the n
aive-realistic suppositions as to man's psychological and physiological cons
titution, then we are dealing, not with things-in-themselves, but merely wit
h our representations of things. Now if naive realism, when consistently tho
ught through, leads to results which directly contradict what it presupposes
, then one must regard its presuppositions as unsuitable for the foundation
of a world view and discard them. It is certainly inadmissible on the one ha
nd to reject the presuppositions and yet, on the other, to regard their outc
ome as valid, as does the critical idealist when he bases his assertion, The
world is my representation, on the so-called proof indicated above. (Eduard
von Hartmann gives a full account of this line of argument in his work, Das
Grundproblem der Erkenntnistheorie, The Basic Problem of a Theory of Knowle
dge.)
The correctness of critical idealism is one thing, the power of conviction o
f its proof another. How it stands with the former will be seen later in the
course of our discussion. But the power of conviction of its proof is nil.
If one builds a house and the first floor collapses while the second floor i
s being built, then the second floor collapses also. As first floor is relat
ed to second floor, so is naive realism related to critical idealism.
For the one holding the view that the whole world we perceive is only a worl
d that we represent to ourselves and, indeed, only the effect on our soul of
things unknown to us, the essential problem of knowledge is naturally conce
rned, not with the representations present only in the soul, but with the th
ings which lie outside our consciousness and are independent of us. He asks:
How much can we indirectly learn about them, since they are not directly ac
cessible to our observation? From this point of view he is concerned, not wi
th the inner connection of his conscious perceptions, but with their causes,
which lie beyond his consciousness and exist independently of him while the
perceptions disappear as soon as he turns his senses away from things. From
this point of view, our consciousness acts like a mirror from which the pic
tures of things also disappear the moment its reflecting surface is not turn
ed toward them. He who does not see things themselves, but only their reflec
tions, must obtain information about their nature indirectly by drawing conc
lusions from the behavior of the reflections. This is the standpoint of mode
rn natural science, which uses perceptions only as a means of obtaining info
rmation about the processes of matter which lie behind them, and alone reall
y "are." If the philosopher, as critical idealist, acknowledges a real exist
ence at all, then his sole aim is to gain knowledge of this real existence i
ndirectly by means of his representations. His interest skips over the subje
ctive world of representations and instead pursues what produces these repre
sentations.
But the critical idealist may go as far as to say: I am confined to the worl
d of my representations and cannot get beyond it. If I think that there is s
omething behind my representations, then again this thought is nothing but m
y representation. An idealist of this kind will then either deny the thing-i
n-itself entirely or, at any rate, say that it has no significance for human
beings, that it is as good as non-existent since we can know nothing of it.
To this kind of critical idealist the whole world seems a dream, in the face
of which all striving for knowledge is simply meaningless. For him there ca
n be only two kinds of men: those who are victims of the illusion that their
own dream-pictures are real things, and the wise ones who see through the n
othingness of this dream-world and therefore must gradually lose all desire
to trouble themselves further about it. From this point of view, even one's
own personality may become a mere dream phantom. Just as during sleep, among
our dream-images an image of our self appears, so in waking consciousness t
he representation of the I is added to the representations of the outer worl
d. We then have in consciousness not the real I, but only our representation
of the I. Now, if the existence of things is denied or at least it is denie
d that we can know anything of them, then the existence or the knowledge of
one's own personality must also be denied. The critical idealist then comes
to maintain: "All reality transforms itself into a wonderful dream - without
a life which is dreamed about, and without a spirit which dreams - into a d
ream which hangs together in a dream of itself."35
It does not matter whether the person who believes that he recognizes life t
o be a dream assumes nothing more behind this dream, or whether he refers hi
s representations to real things: in either case, life must lose all scienti
fic interest for him. But whereas all science must be meaningless for those
who believe that the whole of the accessible universe is exhausted in dreams
, for others who believe they can draw conclusions about the things from the
representations, science will consist in the investigation of such "things-
in-themselves." The first world view could be described as absolute illusion
ism, the second is called transcendental realism by its most consistent expo
nent, Eduard von Hartmann.36
Both these views have this in common with naive realism that they seek to es
tablish themselves by means of an investigation of perceptions. However, now
here within this sphere can they find a firm foundation. An essential questi
on for an adherent of transcendental realism must be: How does the I bring a
bout, out of itself, the world of representations? Insofar as it would be a
means of investigating indirectly the world of the I-in-itself, an earnest s
triving for knowledge could still be kindled by a world of representations t
hat was given us, even if this disappeared as soon as we shut our senses to
the external world. If the things we experience were representations, then e
veryday life would be like a dream, and recognition of the true situation wo
uld be like an awakening. Our dream pictures also interest us as long as we
are dreaming and, consequently, do not recognize them as dreams. The moment
we awaken we no longer look for inner connections between our dream-pictures
, but for the physical, physiological and psychological processes which caus
ed them. In the same way a philosopher who considers the world to be his rep
resentation cannot be interested in the inner connection of the details with
in it. If he allows for the existence of an I at all, then he will not ask h
ow his representations are connected with one another, but what takes place
in the soul that exists independently of him while his consciousness contain
s a certain content of representations. If I dream that I am drinking wine w
hich makes my throat burn, and I wake up coughing,37 then the moment I awake
n I cease to be interested in what the dream was about; now my attention is
concerned only with the physiological and psychological processes by means o
f which the irritation which caused me to cough comes to be symbolically exp
ressed in the dream picture. Similarly the philosopher, as soon as he is con
vinced that the given world consists of nothing but representations, would a
t once turn from them to the real soul behind them. Things become worse when
illusionism completely denies the existence of the I-in-itself behind repre
sentations, or at least holds it to be unknowable. One may easily arrive at
such a view through the observation that in contrast to dreaming there exist
s the waking state, in which we have the opportunity to see through the drea
m and to refer it to the real connections of things, but that we have no con
dition which is related similarly to our waking conscious life. To adopt thi
s view is to fail to see that in fact there is something which is related to
mere perceiving as waking experience is related to dreams. This something i
s thinking. The naive man cannot be considered to lack the insight referred
to here. He takes the world as it is and regards things as real in the sense
in which he experiences them to be so. The first step, however, which is ta
ken beyond this standpoint can only consist in asking: How is thinking relat
ed to perception? Whether or not the perception, in the form given me, conti
nues to exist before and after my forming a representation of it, - if I wan
t to say anything whatever about it, I can do so only with the help of think
ing. If I say: The world is my representation, I have expressed the result o
f a thinking process, and if my thinking is not applicable to the world, the
n this result is erroneous. Between a perception and any kind of assertion a
bout it, thinking slips in.
It has already been indicated why, in our consideration of things, we usuall
y overlook thinking (See p. 61f.). This is due to the fact that we direct ou
r attention only toward the object about which we think, but not toward our
thinking at the same time. Naive consciousness treats thinking as something
which has nothing to do with things, but stands altogether aloof from them a
nd contemplates them. The picture which the thinker makes of the phenomena o
f the world is considered, not as something belonging to them, but as someth
ing existing only in men's heads. The world is complete, even without this p
icture. The world is finished and ready-made with all its substances and for
ces, and of this ready-made world man makes himself a picture. Whoever think
s along these lines should be asked: What gives you the right to declare the
world to be complete without thinking? Does the world not produce thinking
in the heads of men with the same necessity as it produces the blossom on a
plant? Plant a seed in the earth. Root and stem will grow. It will unfold le
aves and blossoms. Then place the plant before you. In your soul it connects
itself with a definite concept. Why should this concept belong to the entir
e plant any less than leaf and blossom? You say: The leaves and blossoms are
there without the presence of a perceiving subject; the concept, however, d
oes not appear till a human being confronts the plant. Quite true. But leave
s and blossoms appear on the plant only if there is soil in which the seed c
an be planted, and light and air in which the leaves and blossoms can unfold
. In just this way does the concept of the plant arise when a thinking consc
iousness confronts it.
It is quite arbitrary to regard as a totality, as a thing in its entirety, t
he sum of what we experience through mere perception, and to regard as a mer
e addition, which has nothing to do with the thing itself, what reveals itse
lf through thinking observation. If I receive a rosebud today, the picture t
hat offers itself to my perception is complete only for the moment. If I put
the bud into water, tomorrow I shall get a quite different picture of my ob
ject. If I do not turn my gaze away from the rosebud, then I shall see today
's state gradually change into tomorrow's through an infinite number of inte
rmediate stages. The picture which presents itself to me at any one moment i
s only a chance section of an object which is in a continual process of beco
ming. If I do not put the bud into water, a whole series of states, which as
possibilities lay within the bud, will not be evolved; or tomorrow I may be
prevented from observing the blossom further and therefore will have an inc
omplete picture of it.
That opinion is quite subjective which, on the basis of a chance picture of
a thing, declares: This is the thing.
It is equally inadmissible to declare the sum of perceptions to be the thing
. It could well be possible for a being to receive the concept at the same t
ime as, and undivided from, the perception. To such a being it would never o
ccur that the concept did not belong to the thing. He would ascribe to the c
oncept an existence indivisibly bound up with the thing.
Let me make myself clearer by an example. If I throw a stone horizontally th
rough the air, I see it in different places, one after the other. I connect
these places to form a line. In mathematics I learn to know various kinds of
lines, one of which is the parabola. I know the parabola to be a line produ
ced by a point moving according to certain laws. If I investigate the condit
ions under which the stone moves, I find that the path traversed is identica
l with the line I know as a parabola. That the stone moves just in a parabol
a is a result of the given conditions and necessarily follows from them. The
form of the parabola belongs to the whole phenomenon as much as does any ot
her feature of it. The being described above, who did not have to make the d
etour of thinking, would be given not only a sum of visual aspects at differ
ent points but, undivided from the whole occurrence, also the parabolic form
of the path which we add to the phenomenon by means of thinking.
It is not due to the objects that they are given us at first without the cor
responding concepts, but to our intellectual organization. Our being as a to
tality functions in such a way that from every reality the elements belongin
g to it flow to us from two directions: from the direction of perceiving and
from that of thinking.
How I am organized for grasping them has nothing to do with the nature of th
ings. The breach between perceiving and thinking is not present until the mo
ment I, the one who contemplates them, confront the things. Which elements d
o, and which do not belong to the object, cannot at all depend on the manner
in which I arrive at knowledge of these elements.
Man is a limited being. To begin with, he is a being among other beings. His
existence is bound up with space and time. Because of this, it is always on
ly a limited section of the total universe that can be given him. But this l
imited section links itself in all directions, both in time and in space, to
other sections. If our existence were so bound up with the surrounding worl
d that every process would be a process in us as well, then the distinction
between us and things would not exist. But then neither would there be any i
ndividual events for us. All events would pass over into one another continu
ously. The cosmos would be a unity, a totality enclosed within itself. Nowhe
re would there be a break in the stream of events. It is because of our limi
tations that things appear to us as if they were separate, when in reality t
hey are not separate at all. Nowhere, for example, is the singular quality o
f red present by itself, in isolation. It is surrounded on all sides by othe
r qualities, to which it belongs and without which it could not subsist. For
us, however, to lift certain sections out from the rest of the world and to
consider them by themselves, is a necessity. Our eye can take hold of only
single colors, one after another, out of a totality of many colors, our unde
rstanding, of only single concepts out of a coherent system of concepts. Thi
s separating off is a subjective act, and it is due to the fact that man is
not identical with the world process, but is a being among other beings. Now
all depends on our defining how the being of man is related to other beings
. This definition must be distinguished from merely becoming conscious of ou
rselves. This latter depends on the act of perceiving, just as does our beco
ming conscious of anything else. Self-perception shows me a number of qualit
ies which I comprise in the unity of my personality in the same way as I com
prise the qualities yellow, metallic, hard, etc., in the unity "gold." Self-
perception does not take me beyond the sphere of what belongs to myself. Thi
s perceiving myself is to be distinguished from defining myself by means of
thinking. Just as I insert a separate perception of the external world into
the connection of things by means of thinking, so do I insert the perception
s derived from myself into the world process by means of thinking. When I pe
rceive myself, then I see myself as enclosed within certain limits, but my t
hinking has nothing to do with these limits. In this sense I am a twofold be
ing. I am enclosed within the sphere which I perceive as that of my personal
ity, but I am also the bearer of an activity which, from a higher sphere, de
termines my limited existence. Our thinking is not individual like our sensi
ng and feeling. It is universal. It receives an individual stamp in each sep
arate human being only because it becomes related to his individual feelings
and sensations. Through these particular colorings of the universal thinkin
g, single persons differ from one another. A triangle has only one single co
ncept. For the content of this concept it is quite immaterial whether the hu
man bearer of consciousness who grasps it is A or B. But it will be grasped
by each of the two bearers of consciousness in an individual way. This thoug
ht conflicts with a common prejudice which is very hard to overcome. Those w
ho have this prejudice cannot reach the insight that the concept of triangle
which my head grasps is the same concept as that which my neighbor's head g
rasps. The naive man considers himself to be the maker of his concepts. He t
herefore believes that each person has his own concepts. It is a fundamental
requirement of philosophic thinking to overcome this prejudice. The one und
ivided concept, triangle, does not become a multiplicity because it is thoug
ht by many. For the thinking of the many is itself a unity.
In thinking, we are given that element which embraces our particular individ
uality and makes it one with the cosmos. In that we sense and feel (and also
perceive), we are single entities; in that we think, we are the All-One Bei
ng that pervades everything. This is the deeper foundation of our twofold be
ing: We see within us a simply absolute force come into existence, a force w
hich is universal, but we learn to know it, not as it issues from the center
of the world, but at a point of the periphery. Were the former the case, as
soon as we came to be conscious, we should know the whole world riddle. But
since we stand at a point on the periphery and find that our own existence
is confined within definite limits, we must learn to know the region which l
ies beyond our own being with the help of thinking, which penetrates into us
out of the general world existence.
Through the fact that the thinking in us reaches out beyond our separate exi
stence and relates itself to the general world existence, there arises in us
the urge for knowledge. Beings without thinking do not have this urge. When
other things confront them, this gives rise to no questioning within them.
These other things remain external to such beings. But the concept rises up
within thinking beings when they confront external things. It is that part o
f things which we receive not from outside, but from within. It is for knowl
edge to bring about the agreement, the union of the two elements, the inner
and the outer.
The perception therefore is not something finished, not something self-conta
ined, but one side of the total reality. The other side is the concept. The
act of knowledge is the synthesis of perception and concept. Only perception
and concept together constitute the whole thing.
The above explanations give proof that it is meaningless to seek for any com
mon factor in the separate entities of the world, other than the ideal conte
nt to be found in thinking. All efforts must fail which seek to find any oth
er world unity than this internally coherent ideal content which we gain by
thinking consideration of our perceptions. Neither a humanly personal God, n
or force, nor matter, nor idea-less will (Schopenhauer), is acceptable as th
e universal world unity. All these entities belong only to a limited sphere
of our observation. Humanly limited personality we perceive only in man, for
ce and matter in external things. As regards the will, it can be considered
only as the expression of the activity of our finite personality. Schopenhau
er38 wants to avoid making "abstract" thinking the bearer of the world unity
, and instead seeks something which seems to him to be immediate reality. Th
is philosopher believes we can never approach the world so long as we regard
it as an external world.
"In fact, the meaning sought for in the world that confronts me solely as my
representation, or the transition from it, as mere representation of the co
gnizing subject, to whatever it may be besides this, could never be found if
the investigator himself were nothing more than the pure cognizing subject
(a winged cherub without a body). But he himself is rooted in that world, he
finds himself in it as an individual; this means that his knowledge, which
is the necessary bearer of the whole world as representation, is yet always
given through the medium of a body, whose affections are, as we have shown,
the starting point from which the intellect forms a view of that world. For
the pure cognizing subject as such, this body is a representation like every
other representation, an object among objects; in this respect its movement
s and actions are known to him in no other way than the changes in all other
objects which he can contemplate, and would be just as strange and incompre
hensible to him if their meaning were not revealed to him in an entirely dif
ferent way.... For the subject of cognition, who appears as an individual th
rough his identity with the body, this body is given in two entirely differe
nt ways: It is given as a representation for intelligent consideration, as o
bject among objects and subjected to their laws; but also, at the same time,
in quite a different way, namely, as that which is directly known to everyo
ne, and which is called will. Every true act of his will is also at once and
unfailingly a movement of his body: he cannot will the act without perceivi
ng at the same time that it appears as a movement of the body. The act of wi
ll and the action of the body are not two different conditions objectively r
ecognized, connected by the bond of causality; they do not stand in the rela
tion of cause and effect; they are one and the same, but are given in two en
tirely different ways: once quite directly, and once again for the intellige
nce that considers it."39
By these arguments Schopenhauer believes himself entitled to see in the huma
n body the "objectivity" of the will. In his opinion one feels in the action
s of the body a direct reality, the thing-in-itself in the concrete. The obj
ection to these arguments is that the actions of our body come to our consci
ousness only through self-perceptions, and that, as such, they are in no way
superior to other perceptions. If we want to learn to know their nature, we
can do so only by thinking investigation, that is, by fitting them into the
ideal system of our concepts and ideas.
Rooted most deeply in the naive consciousness of mankind is the opinion: Thi
nking is abstract, empty of all concrete content. At most it can give an "id
eal" mirror picture of the world, but nothing of the world itself. To judge
like this is never to have become clear about what perception without the co
ncept, is. Let us look at this realm of mere perceptions: it appears as a me
re juxtaposition in space, a mere succession in time, an aggregate of discon
nected entities. None of the things which come and go on the stage of percep
tion have any direct, perceptible connection with any others. From this aspe
ct, the world is a multiplicity of objects of equal value. None plays any gr
eater part in the hustle and bustle of the world than any other. If it is to
become clear to us that this or that fact has greater significance than ano
ther, we must consult our thinking. Without the functioning of thinking, the
rudimentary organ of an animal which has no significance in its life appear
s to us as equal in value to the most important limb. The separate facts app
ear in their own significance, as well as in their significance for the rest
of the world only when thinking spins its threads from one entity to anothe
r. This activity of thinking is one filled with content. For it is only thro
ugh a quite definite, concrete content that I can know why the snail belongs
to a lower level of organization than the lion. The mere sight, the percept
ion, gives me no content which can inform me about the degree of perfection
of an organization. Thinking brings this content to the perception from man'
s world of concepts and ideas. In contrast to the content of perception give
n to us from outside, the content of thought shines forth in the inner being
of man. The manner in which the content of thought first appears, we will c
all intuition. Intuition is for thinking what observation is for perception.
Intuition and observation are the sources of our knowledge. An observed obj
ect or event is foreign to us as long as we do not have in our inner being t
he corresponding intuition which completes for us that part of reality which
is missing in the perception. To someone who lacks the ability to find intu
itions corresponding to things, the full reality remains inaccessible. Just
as the color-blind sees only differences of brightness without any color qua
lities, so the one who lacks intuition can observe only disconnected fragmen
ts of perceptions.
To explain a thing, to make it intelligible, means nothing other than to pla
ce it into the context from which it has been torn owing to the nature of ou
r organization as described above. Something cut off from the world whole do
es not exist. Isolation in any form has only subjective validity for our org
anization. For us the world unity divides itself into above and below, befor
e and after, cause and effect, object and representation, matter and force,
object and subject, etc. What appears to our observation as single entities,
combines, bit by bit, through the coherent, undivided world of our intuitio
ns, and through thinking we again fit together into a unity everything we ha
d divided through perceiving.
The enigmatic aspect of an object is due to its separate existence. But this
separation is brought about by us and, within the world of concepts, can be
cancelled again.
Except through thinking and perceiving, nothing is given to us directly. The
question now arises: What significance has perception according to our line
of thought? We have, it is true, recognized that the proof which critical i
dealism brings forward for the subjective nature of perceptions, collapses,
but the insight that the proof is wrong does not necessarily mean that what
is asserted is incorrect. Critical idealism does not base its proof on the a
bsolute nature of thinking, but relies on the fact that naive realism, when
followed to its logical conclusion, contradicts itself. How does the matter
stand when the absoluteness of thinking is recognized?
Let us assume that a certain perception, for example, red, appears in my con
sciousness. Continued consideration will show the perception to be connected
with other perceptions, for example, a definite form, certain perceptions o
f temperature, and of touch. This combination I call an object of the sense
world. I can now ask: Over and above the perceptions just mentioned, what el
se is there in that section of space where they appear? I shall find mechani
cal, chemical and other processes in that section of space. I now go further
and investigate the processes I find on the way from the object to my sense
organs. I can find movements in an elastic medium, and their nature has not
the slightest thing in common with the original perception. I get the same
result when I go on and investigate the further transmission between sense o
rgans and brain. In each of these spheres I gather new perceptions, but the
connecting medium permeating all these perceptions standing side by side in
both space and time, is thinking. The air vibrations which carry sound are g
iven me as perception, just as is the sound itself. Thinking alone links all
these perceptions to one another, showing them in their mutual relationship
s. Beyond what is directly perceived, we cannot speak of anything except wha
t can be recognized through the ideal connections of perceptions (that is, w
hat can be discovered through thinking). That relationship between the perce
ptual object and the perceiving subject, which goes beyond what can be perce
ived, is therefore a purely ideal one, that is, it can be expressed only by
means of concepts. Only if I could perceive how the perceptual object affect
s the perceiving subject, or, the other way round, if I could observe the bu
ilding up of the perceptual pictures by the subject, would it be possible to
speak as does modern physiology and the critical idealism based on it. This
view confuses an ideal relation (that of the object to the subject) with a
process which we could speak of only if it were possible to perceive it. The
principle, "No color without a color-seeing eye," is therefore not to be ta
ken to mean that the eye produces the color, but only that an ideal relation
ship, recognizable by thinking, exists between the perception, color and the
perception, eye. Empirical science will have to establish how the nature of
the eye and the nature of colors are related to one another, that is, by wh
at means the organ of sight transmits the perception of colors, etc. I can t
race how one perception succeeds another and how one is related to others in
space, and I can formulate this in conceptual terms, but I cannot perceive
how a perception originates out of the non-perceptible. All attempts to seek
any relations between perceptions other than thought relations must of nece
ssity fail.
What, then, is a perception? When asked in general, this question is absurd.
A perception always appears as a quite definite, concrete content. This con
tent is directly given and is completely contained within the given. The onl
y question one can ask concerning this given is, What is it apart from being
a perception; that is, What is it for thinking? The question concerning the
"what" of a perception, therefore, can refer only to the conceptual intuiti
on which corresponds to it. Seen in this light, the question of the subjecti
vity of perceptions, in the sense of critical idealism, cannot be raised at
all. Only what is perceived as belonging to the subject can be termed "subje
ctive." No real process, in a naive sense, can form a link between the subje
ctive and the objective, that is, no process that can be perceived; this is
possible only for thinking. For us, then, that is objective which, to percep
tion, lies outside of the perceptual subject. My perceptual subject remains
perceptible to me when the table which stands before me has disappeared from
my field of observation. My observation of the table has caused in me a cha
nge which likewise remains. I retain the ability to reproduce a picture of t
he table later. This ability to produce a picture remains connected with me.
Psychology describes this picture as a memory representation. However, it i
s the only thing which can correctly be called the representation of the tab
le. For it corresponds to the perceptible change in me, caused through the p
resence of the table in my field of vision. And indeed, it is not a change i
n some "I-in-itself" standing behind the perceptual subject, but a change in
the perceptible subject itself. A representation, then, is a subjective per
ception, in contrast to the objective perception which occurs when the objec
t is present in the field of vision. The confusing of the former subjective
with the latter objective perception leads to the misunderstanding of ideali
sm: The world is my representation.
The next step must be to define the concept of representation more exactly.
What we have so far described of it is not its concept; what we have describ
ed has only pointed the way to where in the perceptual field representations
are to be found. The exact concept of representation will also then make it
possible for us to gain a satisfactory explanation of the relationship betw
een representation and object. This will also lead us over the border-line,
where the relationship between the human subject and the object belonging to
the world is brought down from the purely conceptual field of knowledge int
o concrete individual life. Once we know what to think of the world, it will
also be easy to adapt ourselves to it. We can only be active with our full
human forces when we know the objects belonging to the world to which we dev
ote our activity.
Addition to the Revised Edition (1918): The view I have characterized here c
an be regarded as one to which man is led at first, as if by a natural insti
nct, the moment he begins to reflect upon his relation to the world. He then
finds himself caught in a thought formation which dissolves for him while h
e frames it. This thought formation is such that a purely theoretical refuta
tion of it does not suffice. One has to live through it and experience it in
order to recognize how far it leads one astray, and then to find the way ou
t. It must be a feature of any discussion concerning man's relation to the w
orld, not for the sake of refuting others whose view about this relation one
believes to be wrong, but because one must oneself experience to what confu
sion every first reflection about such a relation can lead. One must gain th
at insight which will enable one to refute oneself with respect to such a fi
rst reflection. The above discussion is meant in this sense.
When one tries to work out a view about man's relation to the world, one bec
omes conscious of the fact that man himself creates this relation, at least
in part, by forming representations about the things and events in the world
. This draws his attention away from what is present outside in the world an
d directs it to his inner world, to his life of forming representations. He
begins to say to himself: It is impossible for me to have a relationship to
any thing or event unless a representation of it appears in me. From noticin
g this fact, it is but a step to the opinion: All that I experience is, afte
r all, only my representation; I know about a world outside me only insofar
as it is representation in me. With this opinion, man abandons the standpoin
t of naive reality which he has before he begins to reflect about his relati
on to the world. From the naive standpoint, he believes that he is dealing w
ith real things. But reflection about his own being drives him away from thi
s standpoint. This reflection does not allow him to turn his gaze toward a r
eal world such as naive consciousness believes it confronts. This reflection
turns his gaze only toward his representations; his representations slip in
between his own being and that real world the naive standpoint believes in.
Man no longer can look through the intervening world of representations to
any such reality. He has to assume that he is blind to this reality. So the
thought arises of a "thing-in-itself" which is inaccessible to knowledge. -
As long as one considers only the relationship to the world into which man a
ppears to enter through his life of forming representations, one cannot esca
pe from this line of thought. But one cannot remain at the naive standpoint
of reality except by artificially curbing the thirst for knowledge. The fact
that in man the need is present for knowledge about his relation to the wor
ld indicates that the naive standpoint must be abandoned. If the naive stand
point gave us anything that could be acknowledged as truth, then we should n
ot feel this need. - But one does not arrive at anything else that could be
considered as truth if one merely abandons the naive standpoint, but retains
- without noticing it - the kind of thought which it imposes upon us. This
is the mistake that is made when it is said: I experience only my representa
tions, and while I believe that I am dealing with reality, I am actually con
scious only of my representations of reality; I must, therefore, assume that
genuine reality, the "thing in-itself," exists only outside the boundary of
my consciousness and that I know nothing of it directly, but that it someho
w approaches me and influences me in such a way that my representations come
about. To think in this way is only to add in thought, to the world before
us, another world; but one must begin the whole thinking process over again
with regard to this second world. For the unknown "thing-in-itself," in its
relation to man's being, is thought of in exactly the same way as is the kno
wn thing of the naive standpoint of reality. - One only escapes the confusio
n that arises in one's critical reflection concerning this standpoint when o
ne notices that inside everything we can experience by means of perceiving,
be it within ourselves or outside in the world, there is something which can
not succumb to the fate that a representation inserts itself between event a
nd contemplating human being. And this something is thinking. With regard to
thinking, man can remain at the naive standpoint of reality. If he does not
do so, it is only because he has noticed that he has to abandon this standp
oint in regard to other things, but overlooks the fact that this insight, wh
ich is true for other things, does not apply to thinking. When he notices th
is, he opens the portal to yet another insight, that in thinking and through
thinking that must be acknowledged to which man appears to blind himself be
cause he has to place between himself and the world the life of representati
ons. - A critic highly esteemed by the author of this book has objected that
this discussion of thinking remains at naive realism in regard to thinking,
as it must if the real world and the world of representations are held to b
e one and the same. However, the author believes he has shown in just this d
iscussion this fact: that an unprejudiced observation of thinking inevitably
shows that "naive realism" is valid for thinking, and that naive realism, i
nsofar as it is not valid for other things, is overcome through the recognit
ion of the true nature of thinking.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
※ 来源:·哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn·[FROM: 天外飞仙]
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