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发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Knowledge of Freedom VII
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日02:19:12 星期四), 站内信件
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY
The Knowledge of Freedom
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VII
ARE THERE LIMITS TO KNOWLEDGE?
We have established that the elements for explaining reality are to be taken
from the two spheres: perceiving and thinking. As we have seen, it is our o
rganization that determines the fact that the full, complete reality of thin
gs, our own subject included, appears at first as a duality. Cognition overc
omes this duality by combining the two elements of reality: the perception a
nd the concept gained by thinking, into the complete thing. If we call the w
orld as it confronts us before it has attained its true aspect by means of c
ognition, "the world of appearance," in contrast to the unified whole compos
ed of perception and concept, then we can say: The world is given us as a du
ality (dualistic), and cognition transforms it into a unity (monistic). A ph
ilosophy which starts from this basic principle may be called a monistic phi
losophy, or monism, in contrast to the theory of two worlds, or dualism. The
latter does not assume that there are two sides of a single reality, which
are kept apart merely by our organization, but, rather, that there are two w
orlds, completely different from each other. Then in the one world it tries
to find the principles that can explain the other.
Dualism rests on a misunderstanding of what we call knowledge. It divides th
e whole of existence into two spheres, each of which has its own laws, and i
t lets these spheres stand opposite to and outside of each other.
It is from a dualism such as this that there arises the distinction between
the perceived object and the thing-in-itself which Kant41 introduced into sc
ience and which so far has not been expelled. From our discussion can be see
n that it is due to the nature of our intellectual organization that a parti
cular thing can be given us only as perception. Thinking then overcomes this
separateness by referring each perception to its rightful place in the worl
d whole. As long as the separated parts of the world whole are defined as pe
rceptions, in this elimination we are simply following a law of our subjecti
vity. If, however, we consider the sum-total of all perceptions as constitut
ing one part, and confront it with the "thing-in-itself" as a second part, t
hen our philosophising loses all foundation. It then becomes a mere playing
with concepts. An artificial opposition is constructed, but it is not possib
le to attain a content for the second part of this opposition, since such co
ntent for a particular thing can be drawn only from perception.
Every kind of existence which is assumed outside the realm of perception and
concept belongs to the sphere of unjustified hypotheses. The "thing-in-itse
lf" belongs in this category. It is quite natural that a dualistic thinker s
hould be unable to find the connection between a universal principle which h
e hypothetically assumes, and the given, known by experience. One can obtain
a content for the hypothetical universal principle only by borrowing a cont
ent from the sphere of experience and then shutting one's eyes to the fact o
f the borrowing. Otherwise it remains an empty concept, a non-concept, which
is nothing but a shell of a concept. Then the dualistic thinker usually mai
ntains that the content of this concept is not accessible to our knowledge.
We can know only that such a content must be present, but not what it is. In
both cases it is impossible to overcome dualism. Even if one brings a few a
bstract elements from the sphere of experience into the concept of the thing
-in-itself, it still remains impossible to derive the rich concrete life of
experience from those few qualities which, after all, are themselves taken f
rom perception only. Du-Bois Reymond42 thinks that the imperceptible atoms o
f matter produce sensation and feeling by means of their position and motion
, and then comes to the conclusion: We can never find a satisfactory explana
tion of how matter and motion produce sensation and feeling, for "It is abso
lutely and forever unintelligible that it should be other than indifferent t
o a number of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, etc., how they lie an
d move, how they lay and moved, or how they will lie and will move. It is im
possible to see how consciousness could come into existence through their in
teraction." This conclusion is characteristic of this whole trend of thought
. Position and motion are abstractions derived from the rich sphere of perce
ptions. They are then transferred to the imagined world of atoms. Then aston
ishment arises that real life cannot be evolved out of this principle which
is self-made and borrowed from the sphere of perceptions.
That the dualist who works with a completely empty concept of the "in-itself
" of things can reach no explanation of the world, already follows from the
definition of his principle indicated above.
A dualist is always compelled to set impassable barriers to our faculty of k
nowledge. The follower of a monistic world view knows that everything he nee
ds for the explanation of any given phenomenon in the world must lie within
this world itself. What hinders him from reaching the explanation can be onl
y contingent limitations in space and time, or shortcomings of his organizat
ion. And, indeed, not of the human organization in general, but only of his
own particular one.
It follows from the concept of cognition, as defined by us, that one cannot
speak of limits to knowledge. Cognition is not a concern of the universe in
general, but one which men must settle for themselves. Things claim no expla
nation. They exist and act on one another according to laws which thinking c
an discover. They exist in indivisible unity with these laws. Our egohood co
nfronts them, grasping at first only what we have called perceptions. In the
inner core of our egohood, however, we find the power to discover the other
part of reality also. Only when the egohood has again combined for itself t
he two elements of reality which are indivisibly united in the world, is the
thirst for knowledge satisfied: the I has again come to reality.
Therefore, the conditions required for cognition to arise, come about throug
h and for the I. The I sets itself the problems of cognition. And it takes t
hem from the element of thinking, in itself absolutely clear and transparent
. If we ask questions we cannot answer, then the content of the question can
not be clear and distinct in all its details. The world does not set us the
questions; it is we ourselves who set them.
I can imagine that it would be quite impossible for me to answer a question
which I happened to find written down somewhere, without knowing the sphere
from which the content of the question was taken.
In knowledge we are concerned with questions which arise for us through the
fact that a sphere of perceptions, conditioned by time, space, and our subje
ctive organization, is confronted by a sphere of concepts pointing to a worl
d which is a unity. My task is to reconcile these two spheres, well known to
me. One cannot speak here of a limit of knowledge. It may be that at a part
icular moment, this or that remains unexplained because, through our place i
n life, we are prevented from perceiving all that is involved. What is not f
ound to-day, however, may be found tomorrow. The limits due to these causes
are only transitory, and can be overcome by the progress of perceiving and t
hinking.
Dualism makes the mistake of transferring the antithesis of object and subje
ct, which has significance only within the sphere of perceptions, to purely
invented entities outside this sphere. But as the separate things within the
field of perception remain separated only as long as the perceiver refrains
from thinking, which cancels all separation and shows it to be due to merel
y subjective factors, so the dualist, in fact, transfers to entities behind
the sphere of perceptions definitions which, even for perceptions, have no a
bsolute but only relative validity. In doing this he splits up the two facto
rs concerned in the process of cognition, perception and concept, into four:
1) the object-in-itself, 2) the perception which the subject has of the obj
ect, 3) the subject, 4) the concept which relates the perception to the obje
ct-in-itself. The relation between object and subject is considered to be re
al, that is, the subject is considered to be really (dynamically) influenced
by the object. This real process is said not to appear in consciousness. Bu
t it is supposed to evoke in the subject a response to the stimulation from
the object. The result of this response is said to be the perception. This a
t last enters our consciousness. The object is said to have an objective rea
lity (independent of the subject), the perception a subjective reality. This
subjective reality is said to be referred by the subject to the object. Thi
s latter reference is said to be an ideal one. The dualist, in other words,
splits up the process of cognition into two parts. One part, i.e., the produ
ction of the perceptual object out of the thing-in-itself, takes place, acco
rding to him, outside of consciousness, the other part, the union of percept
ion with concept and the reference of this to the object, within consciousne
ss. These presuppositions make it clear that the dualist believes he receive
s in his concepts only something subjective, which represents what confronts
his consciousness. The objectively real process in the subject, by means of
which the perception comes about, and still more the objective relationship
s between things-in-themselves, remain inaccessible to direct cognition for
such a dualist. In his opinion, man can obtain only concepts that represent
the objectively real. The bond of unity which connects things with one anoth
er and also objectively with our individual spirit (as thing-in-itself), lie
s beyond consciousness in a being-in-itself of whom we likewise can have in
our consciousness only a concept that represents it. The dualist believes th
at the whole world would be nothing but a mere abstract scheme of concepts i
f he did not insist on "real" connections between the objects beside the con
ceptual ones. In other words, the ideal principles which can be discovered b
y thinking seem too airy for the dualist, and he seeks, in addition, "real p
rinciples" with which to support them.
Let us examine these "real principles" a little more closely. The naive man
(naive realist) regards the objects of external experience as realities. The
fact that his hands can grasp and his eyes can see these objects is for him
the proof of their reality. "Nothing exists that cannot be perceived" is, i
n fact, the basic axiom of the naive man, and it is held to be equally valid
in its converse: "Everything which can be perceived, exists." The best proo
f for this assertion is the naive man's belief in immortality and in ghosts.
He thinks of the soul as a fine kind of physical matter which, in special c
ircumstances, may actually become visible to the ordinary man (naive belief
in ghosts). In contrast to this real world of his, the naive realist regards
everything else, especially the world of ideas, as unreal, as "merely ideal
." What we add to objects by, thinking is mere thoughts about the objects. T
hought adds nothing real to perception.
But it is not only with reference to the existence of things that the naive
man regards sense perception as the sole proof of reality, but also with ref
erence to happenings. According to him, one thing can act upon another only
when a force actually present to sense perception issues from the one and se
izes upon the other. The older physicists thought that very fine substances
emanate from the objects and penetrate through the sense-organs into the sou
l. They thought the actual seeing of these substances to be impossible only
because of the coarseness of our sense organs in comparison with the finenes
s of these substances. In principle, the reason for attributing reality to t
hese substances was the same as that for attributing it to the objects of th
e physical world, namely, the form of their existence, which was thought to
be analogous to that of physical reality. The self-dependent nature of what
can be experienced, not physically but ideally, is not regarded by naive con
sciousness as being real in the same sense. Something grasped "merely as ide
a" is regarded as a chimera until sense perception can provide conviction of
its reality. In short, in addition to the ideal evidence of his thinking, t
he naive man demands the real evidence of his senses. This need of naive man
is the reason why primitive forms of belief in revelation arise. For naive
consciousness, the God who is given through thinking always remains a God me
rely "thought." Naive consciousness demands that the manifestation should be
through means accessible to physical perception. God must appear in bodily
form; little value is attached to the evidence of thinking, but only to the
Divine Nature being proved by the changing of water into wine in a way which
can be testified by the senses. The act of cognition, too, is regarded by n
aive man as a process analogous to sense-perception. Things must make an imp
ression on the soul or send out images which penetrate the senses, etc.
What the naive man can perceive with his senses he regards as real, and that
of which he has no such perception (God, soul, cognition, etc.) he regards
as analogous to what is perceived.
A science based on naive realism will consist in an exact description of the
content of perception. Concepts are only means to this end. They exist to p
rovide ideal counterparts of perceptions. For things themselves, they have n
o significance. For the naive realist, only the individual tulips which are
seen or could be seen, are real. The one idea of the tulip, is to him an abs
traction, is to him an unreal thought-picture, which the soul has put togeth
er for itself out of the characteristics common to all tulips. Naive realism
, with its fundamental principle of the reality of all perceived things, is
contradicted by experience, which shows us that the content of perceptions i
s of a transitory nature. The tulip I see, is real to-day; in a year it will
have vanished into nothingness. What persists is the species tulip. This sp
ecies, however, for the naive realist is "merely" an idea, not a reality. Th
us, this worldview finds itself in the position of seeing its realities aris
e and perish, while what it regards as unreal, in contrast to the real, pers
ists. Hence the naive realist has to allow for the existence of something id
eal besides the perceptions. He has to accept entities which he cannot perce
ive by means of the senses. He justifies this by imagining their existence t
o be analogous to that of physical objects. Such hypothetically assumed real
ities are the invisible forces by means of which objects perceptible to the
senses act on one another. Heredity is thought of in this way; it goes beyon
d the individual and is the reason why a new being develops from the individ
ual which is similar to it, and by means of it the species is maintained. Th
e life principle permeating the organic body is also thought of in this way,
and so is the soul, for which one always finds in naive consciousness a con
cept based on an analogy to sense reality, and finally so, too, the naive ma
n thinks of the Divine Being. This Divine Being is thought of as active in a
manner exactly corresponding to what can be perceived as actions of men, th
at is, the Divine Being is thought of anthropomorphically .
Modern physics traces sense-impressions back to processes in the smallest pa
rticles of bodies and to the infinitely fine substance, the ether, or to som
ething similar. For example, what we sense as warmth, is, within the space o
ccupied by the warmth-giving body, movement of its parts. Here again, someth
ing imperceptible is thought of on the analogy of what is perceptible. The p
hysical analogue to the concept "body" is, in this sense, something like the
interior of a totally enclosed space in which elastic balls are moving in a
ll directions, impinging on one another, bouncing on and off the walls, etc.
Without such assumptions, for naive realism, the world would collapse into a
disconnected chaos of perceptions with no mutual relationships to unite the
m. It is clear, however, that naive realism can arrive at these assumptions
only by inconsistency. If it remained true to its fundamental principle that
only what is perceived is real, then it would not assume a reality where it
perceives nothing. The imperceptible forces which proceed from perceptible
things are essentially unjustified hypotheses from the standpoint of naive r
ealism itself. And as the naive realist acknowledges no other realities, he
invests his hypothetical forces with perceptual content. In doing this he ap
plies a form of existence (perceptual existence) to a sphere where he lacks
the only means that can give any evidence of such existence: perceiving by m
eans of physical senses. This self-contradictory world view leads to metaphy
sical realism. Beside the perceptible reality, the metaphysical realist cons
tructs an imperceptible one which he thinks of on the analogy of the former.
Metaphysical realism therefore, is of necessity dualistic.
Where the metaphysical realist observes a relation between perceptible thing
s (mutual approach through movement, becoming conscious of an object, etc.),
there he regards a reality as existing. But the relation that he notices he
can, however, express only by means of thinking; he cannot perceive it. The
relation, which is purely ideal, is arbitrarily made into something similar
to what is perceptible. Thus, according to this line of thought, the real w
orld is composed of perceptual objects which are in ceaseless flux, arising
and disappearing, and of imperceptible forces which are permanent and produc
e the perceptual objects.
Metaphysical realism is a contradictory mixture of naive realism and idealis
m. Its hypothetical forces are imperceptible entities endowed with the quali
ties of perceptions. In addition to the sphere, for the form of existence of
which he has a means of cognition in its perceptibility, the metaphysical r
ealist has decided to acknowledge another sphere to which this means is not
applicable, a sphere which can be ascertained only by means of thinking. But
he cannot at the same time decide also to acknowledge the form of existence
which thinking mediates, namely the concept (the idea), as being of equal i
mportance with perceptions. If one is to avoid the contradiction of impercep
tible perceptions, then it must be admitted that the relation thinking media
tes between perceptions can have no other form of existence for us than that
of the concept. When the untenable part of metaphysical realism is rejected
, we then have the world before us as the sum of perceptions and their conce
ptual (ideal) relations. Then metaphysical realism merges into a world view
which requires the principle of perceptibility for perceptions and that of "
thinkability" for the relations between the perceptions. Side by side with t
he realm of perceptions and that of concepts, this world view cannot acknowl
edge a third realm for which both principles, the so-called real principle a
nd the ideal principle, have equal validity.
When the metaphysical realist maintains that beside the ideal relation betwe
en the perceptual object and the perceiving subject, there must also exist a
real relation between the "thing-in-itself" of the perception and the "thin
g-in-itself" of the perceptible subject (of the so-called individual spirit)
, then this assertion is due to the mistaken assumption of the existence of
a process, analogous to a process in the sense-world, but imperceptible. Fur
ther, when the metaphysical realist says: I have a conscious ideal relations
hip with my world of perceptions, but with the real world I can have only a
dynamic (force) relationship, he then makes the above mistake to an even gre
ater degree. One can only speak of a force-relationship within the world of
perceptions (in the sphere of the sense of touch), not outside that sphere.
Let us call the world view characterized above, into which metaphysical real
ism merges if it discards its contradictory elements, monism, because it uni
tes one-sided realism with idealism in a higher unity.
For the naive realist, the real world is an aggregate of objects of percepti
on; for the metaphysical realist also the imperceptible forces are realities
. Instead of forces, the monist has ideal connections which he attains by me
ans of his thinking. The laws of nature are such connections. For a law of n
ature is nothing other than the conceptual expression for the connection of
certain perceptions. The monist never has any need to ask for factors other
than perceptions and concepts, with which to explain reality. He knows that
in the whole sphere of reality there is no need to ask for this. In the sphe
re of perceptions, directly accessible to his perceiving, he sees half of a
reality; in the union of this sphere with the sphere of concepts, he finds t
he full reality. The metaphysical realist may make the objection to the adhe
rent of monism: It could be that for your organization your knowledge is com
plete in itself, that no part is lacking; but what you do not know is how th
e world is mirrored in an intelligence organized differently from your own.
To this the monist would reply: If there are intelligences other than human,
if their perceptions have a different form than ours, then all that would b
e of significance for me would be what reaches me from them by means of perc
eptions and concepts. By means of my perceiving and, in fact, by means of th
is specifically human manner of perceiving, as subject I am placed over agai
nst the object. The connection of things is thereby broken. The subject rest
ores this connection by means of thinking. In doing so, things are re-insert
ed into the world whole. Since it is only through our subject that this whol
e appears rent in two at the place between our perception and our concept, s
o likewise the union of these two factors gives us a true knowledge. For bei
ngs with a different world of perceptions (if, for example, they had twice a
s many sense-organs), the connection would appear broken in another place, a
nd the restoration would, accordingly, have a form specific for such beings.
The question concerning limits of knowledge exists only for the naive and m
etaphysical realists, both of whom see in the content of the soul only an id
eal representation of the world. For them, what exists outside the subject i
s something absolute, something self-dependent, and the content of the subje
ct is a picture of this absolute and is completely external to it. How compl
ete is knowledge of this absolute would depend on the greater or lesser degr
ee of resemblance between the picture and the absolute object. A being with
fewer senses than man would perceive less of the world, one with more senses
would perceive more. The former's knowledge would therefore be less complet
e than that of the latter.
For the monist, things are different. It is the organization of the perceivi
ng being that determines how the world unity appears to be torn apart into s
ubject and object. The object is not something absolute, but is only somethi
ng relative in relation to this particular subject. The bridging of the cont
rasting entities can, therefore, take place again only in the quite specific
way that is characteristic of the human subject. As soon as the I, which, i
n perceiving, is separated from the world, reinserts itself into the connect
ion of things through thinking investigation, all further questioning ceases
, since all questions arose only as a result of the separation.
A differently constituted being would have a differently constituted knowled
ge. Our knowledge suffices to answer the questions asked by our nature.
The metaphysical realist should ask: How does what is given as perception co
me to be the given; what is it that affects the subject?
For the monist, the perception is determined by the subject. But in thinking
, the subject has, at the same time, the means for cancelling this determina
tion, caused through the subject itself.
The metaphysical realist is faced by a further difficulty when he seeks to e
xplain the similarity of the world pictures of different human individuals.
He cannot but ask himself: How is it that the world picture which I build up
out of my subjectively determined perceptions and out of my concepts, turns
out to be like that which another individual builds up out of the same two
subjective factors? How, from my subjective world picture, can I infer anyth
ing about that of another human being? The metaphysical realist believes he
can infer, from the fact that people come to terms with one another in pract
ical life, that their subjective world pictures must be similar. From the si
milarity of these world pictures he then further infers that the "individual
spirits" behind the single perceiving human subjects, or the "I-in-itself"
behind the subjects, must also be similar.
Therefore this inference is drawn from a sum of effects to the nature of the
ir underlying causes. It is believed that from a sufficiently large number o
f instances, the situation can be so recognized that one can know how the in
ferred causes will behave in other instances. Such an inference is called an
inductive inference. It will be necessary to modify the results if, from fu
rther observation, some unexpected element is discovered, because the result
, after all, is determined only by the particular form of the earlier observ
ation. The metaphysical realist maintains that this stipulated knowledge of
causes is quite sufficient for practical life.
Inductive inference is the methodical foundation of modern metaphysical real
ism. At one time it was believed that out of concepts could be evolved somet
hing that is no longer a concept. It was believed that from concepts could b
e derived the metaphysical realities which of necessity, metaphysical realis
m must have. This kind of philosophizing is now superseded. Instead, it is b
elieved that from a sufficiently large number of perceptual facts one can in
fer the character of the thing-in-itself which underlies these facts. Just a
s in the past one tried to derive the metaphysical from concepts, so to-day
one tries to derive it from perceptions. As concepts are transparent in thei
r clarity, it was believed that one could also deduce the metaphysical from
them with absolute certainty. Perceptions are not of such transparency. Each
later perception is always a little different from those of the same kind t
hat preceded it. Therefore, anything inferred from the earlier perception is
, in reality, somewhat modified by each following one. The aspect of the met
aphysical arrived at in this way, therefore, can be said to be only relative
ly correct, for it is subject to correction by future instances. Eduard von
Hartmann's metaphysics is of a kind that is determined by this methodical pr
inciple. This is expressed in the motto he gave on the title-page of his fir
st major work: "Speculative results according to the inductive method of nat
ural science."
The form which the metaphysical realist gives to his things-in-themselves to
day is obtained by inductive inferences. His consideration of the process of
knowledge has convinced him that a connection of things, which is objective
ly real, exists side by side with the "subjective" connection that can be kn
own through perception and concept. The nature of this objective reality he
believes he can determine by inductive inferences from his perceptions.
Addition to the Revised Edition, (1918): Certain representations which arise
from investigations of natural phenomena tend, again and again, to disturb
unprejudiced observation - as the effort has been made to describe it above
- of how we experience concepts and perceptions. Such investigations show th
at in the light-spectrum the eye perceives colors from red to violet. Howeve
r, within the spectrum's sphere of radiation, but beyond the violet there ar
e forces to which corresponds no color perception of the eye, but a chemical
effect and, similarly, beyond the limit of the red there exist radiations w
hich have only effects of warmth. Investigation of these and similar phenome
na has led to the opinion that the range of man's sphere of perceptions is d
etermined by the range of his senses, and that he would have before him a ve
ry different world if he had more or altogether different senses. Those who
are inclined to flights of imagination, for which the glittering discoveries
of recent scientific research in particular offer such tempting opportuniti
es, may come to the conclusion: Nothing can enter man's field of observation
except what is able to affect the senses of his bodily organization, and he
has no right to regard what he perceives, by means of his limited organizat
ion, as being in any way a standard for ascertaining reality. Every new sens
e would give him a different picture of reality. - Within its proper limits,
this opinion is entirely correct. But one who allows this opinion to preven
t him from observing without prejudice the relationship between concept and
perception, as explained here, will put obstacles in the way to any realisti
c knowledge of man and world. To experience thinking in its own nature, that
is, to experience the active working-out of the sphere of concepts, is some
thing entirely different from the experience of something perceptible throug
h the senses. Whatever senses man might possibly have, not one would give hi
m reality if through the activity of thinking, he did not permeate with conc
epts the perceptions they conveyed to him; and indeed, every sense, of whate
ver kind, if thus permeated, gives man the possibility to live within realit
y. Speculations about quite different perceptual pictures conveyed by other
senses, has nothing to do with the question concerning man's relation to rea
lity. It is essential to recognize that every perceptual picture derives its
form from the organization of the perceiving being, but the perceptual pict
ure when permeated by thinking which is livingly experienced leads man into
reality. A fanciful description of how different the world would appear to o
ther than human senses cannot act as an incentive to man to seek for knowled
ge concerning his relationship to the world; rather will this happen through
the insight that every perception gives us only a part of the reality it co
nceals, that, therefore, it leads away from its reality. This then brings us
to the further insight that it is thinking which leads into that part of re
ality which the perception conceals within itself. An unprejudiced observati
on of the relation between perceptions, and concepts worked out by thinking,
as here described, may also be disturbed by the fact that in the sphere of
applied physics it becomes necessary to speak not at all of directly percept
ible elements, but of non-perceptible magnitudes, such as lines of electric
or magnetic force, etc. It may appear as if the elements of reality, spoken
of in physics, had nothing to do either with what is perceptible or with con
cepts actively worked out by thinking. But such a view is based on self-dece
ption. What matters is that all that is worked out in physics - as long as i
t is not based on unjustifiable hypotheses which must be excluded - is obtai
ned by means of perceptions and concepts. By a correctly working instinct fo
r knowledge in the physicist, what is apparently a non-perceptible content w
ill always be placed into the field of perceptions, and will be thought of i
n concepts belonging to this field. The magnitudes in electric and magnetic
fields, etc., are attained, owing to their nature, by no other process of co
gnition than the one which takes place between perception and concept. - An
increase or a transformation of the human senses would give a different perc
eptual picture; it would be an enrichment or a transformation of human exper
ience. But a real knowledge of this experience also could be attained only t
hrough the interplay of concept and perception. A deepening of knowledge dep
ends upon the active power of intuition contained in thinking (see p. 113).
In the living experience within thinking, this intuition can dive down into
lesser or greater depths of reality. Through extension of the perceptual pic
ture this diving down of intuition can receive stimulation and thus be indir
ectly strengthened. But never should this diving into the depths to attain r
eality be confused with being confronted with a wider or narrower perceptual
picture, in which there would always be contained only a half-reality deter
mined by the organization of the cognizing being. If one avoids getting lost
in abstractions, it will be recognized how significant, also for knowledge
of the being of man, is the fact that in physics one has to include the exis
tence, in the field of perceptions, of elements for which no sense organ is
directly tuned as for color or sound. The essential being of man is determin
ed not only by what confronts him through his organization as direct percept
ion, but also by the fact that he excludes something else from this direct p
erception. Just as life needs, in addition to the conscious waking state, an
unconscious sleeping state, so, for man's self-experience is needed besides
the sphere of his sense perceptions, another sphere also - indeed, a much l
arger one - of elements not perceptible to the senses, but existing within t
he same field where sense-perceptions originate. All this was already indire
ctly indicated in the first edition of this book. The author here adds these
amplifications to the content because he has found by experience that many
readers have not read accurately enough. - Another thing to be considered is
that the idea of perception, as presented in this book, is not to be confus
ed with the idea of external sense-perception, which is but a special instan
ce of perception. The reader will gather from what has already been said, bu
t even more from what will follow, that here perception includes everything
that man meets, physically or spiritually, before he has grasped it in activ
ely worked out concepts. We do not need what we usually mean by senses in or
der to have perceptions of a soul or spiritual kind. It may be said that suc
h extension of the ordinary use of a word is inadmissible. Yet such extensio
n is absolutely necessary if one is not to be barred by the current use of a
word from enlarging the knowledge of certain fields. If the word perception
is applied to physical perception only, then one cannot arrive at a concept
that can be of use for attaining knowledge even of this (physical) percepti
on. Often it is necessary to enlarge a concept in order that it may preserve
in a narrower field the meaning appropriate to it. Or it is sometimes neces
sary to add something different to the previous content of a concept in orde
r that its first content may be justified or even readjusted. For example, i
t is said in this book (p. 124): "A representation, therefore, is an individ
ualized concept." It has been objected that this is an unusual use of the wo
rd. But this use of the word is necessary if we are to find out what a repre
sentation really is. What would become of the progress of knowledge if, when
compelled to readjust concepts, one is always to be met with the objection:
"This is an unusual use of the word"?
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
※ 来源:·哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn·[FROM: 天外飞仙]
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