Philosophy 版 (精华区)
发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Reality of Freedom XI
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日02:22:38 星期四), 站内信件
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY
The Reality of Freedom
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XI
WORLD PURPOSE AND LIFE PURPOSE
(The Destiny of Man)
Among the many currents of thought pursued in the cultural life of mankind,
it is possible to trace one which can be described as the overcoming of the
concept of purpose in those spheres to which it does not belong. Purpose bel
ongs to a special sequence of phenomena. In reality one can only speak of pu
rpose when, in contrast to the relation between cause and effect where an ea
rlier event determines a later one, the reverse is the case and the later ev
ent influences the earlier. This applies only to human action. Man carries o
ut a deed which he represents to himself first of all, and he lets the repre
sentation determine his action. The later, the deed, with the help of the re
presentation influences the earlier, the person who acts. This detour throug
h the act of representing is always necessary for a connection to have purpo
se.
In a process which can be divided into cause and effect, perception must be
distinguished from concept. The perception of the cause precedes the percept
ion of the effect; cause and effect would simply remain side by side in our
consciousness if we were not able to connect them with one another through t
heir corresponding concepts. The perception of an effect can follow only upo
n the perception of the cause. The effect can have a real influence upon the
cause only through the conceptual factor. For the perceptual factor of the
effect is simply not present prior to the perceptual factor of the cause. If
someone says that the blossom is the purpose of the root, that is, that the
blossom influences the root, then he can say this only concerning that fact
or in the blossom which he confirms in it through his thinking. The perceptu
al factor of the blossom had as yet no existence at the time the root came i
nto being. For a connection of things to have purpose it is necessary to hav
e not merely an ideal connection (the law in it) of the later with the earli
er, but also the concept (the law) of the effect must really, i.e. by means
of a perceptible process, influence the cause. However, a perceptible influe
nce of a concept upon something else is to be observed only in human actions
. This is therefore the only sphere in which the concept of purpose is appli
cable. Naive consciousness, which regards as real only what is perceptible,
attempts - as we said before - to place something perceptible where only ide
al factors are to be recognized. In perceptible events it also looks for per
ceptible connections, or, if it does not find them, imagines them to be ther
e. The concept of purpose, valid for subjective actions, is an element that
easily lends itself to such imaginary connections. The naive man knows how h
e brings about an event, and from this he concludes that nature must do like
wise. In the purely ideal connections of nature he sees not only imperceptib
le forces but also imperceptible real purposes. Man makes his tools to fit a
purpose; on the same pattern, the naive realist lets the Creator build up a
ll organisms. Only very gradually does this mistaken concept of purpose disa
ppear from the sciences. In philosophy, even today, it still does a great de
al of mischief. The purpose of the world is thought to exist outside the wor
ld, and man's destination (therefore also his purpose) outside man, and so o
n.
Monism rejects the concept of purpose in every sphere, with the sole excepti
on of human action. It looks for laws of nature, but not for purposes of nat
ure. Purposes of nature are arbitrary assumptions, just like the imperceptib
le forces (p. 138). And from the standpoint of monism, life purposes that ma
n does not set himself are unjustifiable assumptions. Only that is purposefu
l which man has first made so, for only through the realization of an idea d
oes a purpose arise. And ideas are effective in a realistic sense in man alo
ne. Therefore human life has only the purpose and the destination that the h
uman being gives it. To the question: What is man's task in life? monism can
only answer: The task he sets himself. My mission in the world is not prede
termined, but at every moment is the one I choose. I do not begin life along
a fixed route.
Only by human beings are ideas realized according to purpose. It is therefor
e inadmissible to speak of the embodiment of ideas through history. All such
phrases as: "History is the development of mankind toward freedom," or the
realization of the moral world order, and so on, are untenable from the moni
stic point of view.
The adherents of the concept of purpose believe that by abandoning it they w
ould also have to abandon all order and uniformity in the world. Listen, for
example, to Robert Hamerling:50a
"As long as there are instincts in nature, it is foolish to deny purposes in
it.
Just as the structure of a limb of the human body is not determined and cond
itioned by an idea of this limb, floating in the air, but by the connection
with the greater totality, the body, to which the limb belongs, so the struc
ture of every being in nature, be it plant, animal, or man, is not determine
d and conditioned by an idea of it floating in the air, but by the formative
principle of the great totality of nature which expresses and organizes its
elf according to a purpose." And on page 191 of the same volume:
"The theory of purpose maintains only that in spite of the thousand discomfo
rts and miseries of the life of creatures, lofty purpose and plan are unmist
akably present in the formations and in the development of nature. - A purpo
se and a plan, however, that come to realization only within the bounds of n
atural laws, and cannot aim at a Utopia in which life is not confronted by d
eath, growth by decay, with all the more or less unpleasant, but quite unavo
idable intermediary stages between them.
When the opponents of the concept of purpose bring a laboriously-collected r
ubbish-heap of partial or complete, imaginary or real examples showing lack
of purpose, against a world full of wonders of purpose such as nature shows
in all its realms, then I find it just as droll." -
What is it that here is called purpose? A concordance of perceptions that fo
rm a totality. But since all perceptions are based on laws (ideas) which we
discover by means of our thinking, it follows that the planned concord betwe
en single parts of a perceptual totality is just the ideal concord between t
he single parts of the idea totality contained in the perceptual totality. W
hen it is said that an animal or a man is not determined by an idea floating
in the air, then this is a misleading way of putting it, and the condemned
view ceases to be absurd when rightly formulated. Certainly an animal is not
determined by an idea floating in the air, but indeed is determined by an i
dea inborn in it and constituting the law of its nature. It is just because
the idea is not outside of the object, but is effective in it as its nature,
that one cannot speak of purpose. Just those who deny that the beings of na
ture are determined from outside (whether by an idea floating in the air or
existing outside the creature in the mind of a world Creator, is immaterial
in this context) should admit that these beings are not determined by purpos
e and plan from outside, but by cause and law from within. I construct a mac
hine according to a purpose when I bring its parts in connection with one an
other in a way that they did not acquire from nature. The purpose contained
in the arrangement consists in the fact that I have placed the idea of the w
orking of the machine into its foundation. The machine thereby becomes a per
ceptual object with a corresponding idea. The beings of nature are also enti
ties of this kind. One who says that something contains purpose because it i
s built according to laws can use the same description for the beings of nat
ure, if he likes. However, the laws at work in nature must not be confused w
ith the purposes in subjective human action. For a purpose to be present, it
is always necessary that the effective cause is a concept, and indeed it mu
st be the concept of the effect. But nowhere in nature are concepts in evide
nce as causes; concepts always appear only as the ideal connection between c
ause and effect. Causes are present in nature only in the form of perception
s.
Dualism speaks of world purpose and nature purpose. Where, for perception, a
link can be seen between cause and effect according to law, there the duali
st assumes that one sees only the copy of a connection in which the absolute
Being has realized its purposes. For monism, along with the absolute Being
that cannot be experienced and is only inferred, the reason for assuming any
world purpose also falls away.
Addition to the Revised Version, 1918. No one who thinks through without pre
judice what is presented here, could come to the conclusion that the author
rejects the concept of purpose for all facts not produced by man, because hi
s view is similar to that of those thinkers who, by rejecting this concept,
create the possibility of presenting, first, everything except human action
- and then human action too - as being only a natural process. The fact that
thinking is presented here as a purely spiritual process should be a protec
tion against such misunderstanding. The reason for here rejecting the concep
t of purpose for the spiritual world also, insofar as it lies outside human
action, is because in that world something higher is revealed than purpose r
ealized in human life. And when the purpose of mankind's destination, though
t of on the pattern of human purpose, is referred to here as a mistaken conc
ept, it is meant that the individual human beings set themselves purposes, a
nd the result of these is the total activity of mankind. This result is then
something higher than its parts, the single human purposes.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
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