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发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: Epistemology Since Kant V
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日23:14:49 星期四), 站内信件
Truth and Knowledge
Epistemology Since Kant
All propounders of theories of knowledge since Kant have been influenced to
a greater or lesser degree by the mistaken way he formulated the problem of
knowledge. As a result of his “a priorism” he advanced the view that all o
bjects given to us are our representations. Ever since, this view has been m
ade the basic principle and starting point of practically all epistemologica
l systems. The only thing we can establish as an immediate certainty is the
principle that we are aware of our representations; this principle has becom
e an almost universally accepted belief of philosophers. As early as 1792 G.
E. Schulze maintained in his Aenesidemus that all our knowledge consists of
mere representations, and that we can never go beyond our representations.
Schopenhauer, with a characteristic philosophical fervor, puts forward the v
iew that the enduring achievement of Kantian philosophy is the principle tha
t the world is “my representation.” Eduard von Hartmann finds this princip
le so irrefutable that in his book, Kritische Grundlegung des transzendental
en Realismus (Critical Basis of Transcendental Realism) he assumes that his
readers, by critical reflection, have overcome the naive identification of t
he perceptual picture with the thing-in-itself, that they have convinced the
mselves of the absolute diversity of the subjective-ideal content of conscio
usness, given as perceptual object through the act of representing, and the
thing existing by itself, independent both of the act of representing and of
the form of consciousness; in other words, readers who have entirely convin
ced themselves that the totality of what is given us directly consists of ou
r representations. In his final work on epistemology, Eduard von Hartmann di
d attempt to provide a foundation for this view. The validity of this in rel
ation to a theory of knowledge free from presuppositions, will be discussed
later. Otto Liebmann claims that the principle: “Consciousness cannot jump
beyond itself” must be the inviolable and foremost principle of any science
of knowledge. Volkelt is of the opinion that the first and most immediate t
ruth is: “All our knowledge extends, to begin with, only as far as our repr
esentations” he called this the most positive principle of knowledge, and c
onsidered a theory of knowledge to be “eminently critical” only if it “co
nsiders this principle as the sole stable point from which to begin all phil
osophizing, and from then on thinks it through consistently.” Other philoso
phers make other assertions the center of epistemology, e.g.: the essential
problem is the question of the relation between thinking and existence, as w
ell as the possibility of meditation between them, or again: How does that w
hich exists become conscious, (Rehmke) etc. Kirchmann starts from two episte
mological axioms: “the perceived is” and “the contradictory is not.” Acc
ording to E. L. Fischer knowledge consists in the recognition of something f
actual and real. He lays down this dogma without proof as does Goring, who m
aintains something similar: “Knowledge always means recognizing something t
hat exists; this is a fact that neither scepticism nor Kantian criticism can
deny.” The two latter philosophers simply lay down the law: This they say
is knowledge, without judging themselves.
Even if these different assertions were correct, or led to a correct formula
tion of the problem, the place to discuss them is definitely not at the begi
nning of a theory of knowledge. For they all represent at the outset a quite
specific insight into the sphere of knowledge. To say that my knowledge ext
ends to begin with only as far as my representations, is to express a quite
definite judgment about cognition. In this sentence I add a predicate to the
world given to me, namely, its existence in the form of representation. But
how do I know, prior to all knowledge, that the things given to me are repr
esentations?
Thus this principle ought not to be placed at the foundation of a theory of
knowledge; that this is true is most easily appreciated by tracing the line
of thought that leads up to it. This principle has become in effect a part o
f the whole modern scientific consciousness. The considerations which have l
ed to it are to be found systematically and comprehensively summarized in Pa
rt I of Eduard von Hartmann's book, Das Grundproblem der Erkenntnistheorie (
The Fundamental Problem of Epistemology). What is advanced there can thus se
rve as a kind of guide when discussing the reasons that led to the above ass
umption.
These reasons are physical, psycho-physical, physiological, as well as philo
sophical. The physicist who observes phenomena that occur in our environment
when, for instance, we perceive a sound, is led to conclude that these phen
omena have not the slightest resemblance to what we directly perceive as sou
nd. Out there in the space surrounding us, nothing is to be found except vib
rations of material bodies and of air. It is concluded from this that what w
e ordinarily call sound or tone is solely a subjective reaction of our organ
ism to those wave-like movements. Likewise it is found that light, color and
heat are something purely subjective. The phenomena of color-diffraction, r
efraction, interference and polarization show that these sensations correspo
nd to certain transverse vibrations in external space, which, so it is thoug
ht, must be ascribed partly to material bodies, partly to an infinitely fine
elastic substance, the ether. Furthermore, because of certain physical phen
omena, the physicist finds himself compelled to abandon the belief in the co
ntinuity of objects in space, and to analyze them into systems of minute par
ticles (molecules, atoms) the size of which, in relation to the distance bet
ween them, is immeasurably small. Thus he concludes that material bodies aff
ect one another across empty space, so that in reality force is exerted from
a distance. The physicist believes he is justified in assuming that a mater
ial body does not affect our senses of touch and warmth by direct contact, b
ecause there must be a certain distance, even if very small, between the bod
y and the place where it touches the skin. From this he concludes further th
at what we sense as the hardness or warmth of a body, for example, is only t
he reaction of the peripheral nerves of our senses of touch and warmth to th
e molecular forces of bodies which act upon them across empty space.
These considerations of the physicist are amplified by those of the psycho-p
hysicist in the form of a science of specific sense-energies. J. Muller has
shown that each sense can be affected only in a characteristic manner which
is conditioned by its structure, so that it always reacts in the same way to
any external stimulus. If the optic nerve is stimulated, there is a sensati
on of light, whether the stimulus is in the form of pressure, electric curre
nt, or light. On the other hand, the same external phenomenon produces quite
different sensations, according to which sense organ transmits it. This lea
ds to the conclusion that there is only one kind of phenomenon in the extern
al world, namely motion, and that the many aspects of the world which we per
ceive derive essentially from the reaction of our senses to this phenomenon.
According to this view, we do not perceive the external world. itself, but
merely the subjective sensations which it releases in us.
Thus physiology is added to physics. Physics deals with the phenomena occurr
ing outside our organism to which our perceptions correspond; physiology aim
s to investigate the processes that occur in man's body when he experiences
a certain sense impression. It shows that the epidermis is completely insens
itive to external stimuli. In order to reach the nerves connected with our s
ense of touch on the periphery of the body, an external vibration must first
be transmitted through the epidermis. In the case of hearing and vision the
external motion is further modified through a number of organs in these sen
se-tools, before it reaches the corresponding nerve. These effects, produced
in the organs at the periphery of the body, now have to be conducted throug
h the nerve to the central organ, where sensations are finally produced thro
ugh purely mechanical processes in the brain. It is obvious that the stimulu
s which acts on the sense organ is so changed through these modifications th
at there can be no similarity between what first affected the sense organs,
and the sensations that finally arise in consciousness. The result of these
considerations is summed up by Hartmann in the following words:
“The content of consciousness consists fundamentally of the sensations whic
h are the soul's reflex response to processes of movement in the uppermost p
art of the brain, and these have not the slightest resemblance to the molecu
lar movements which called them into being.”
If this line of thought is correct and is pursued to its conclusion, it must
then be admitted that our consciousness does not contain the slightest elem
ent of what could be called external existence.
To the physical and physiological arguments against so-called “naive realis
m” Hartmann adds further objections which he describes as essentially philo
sophical. A logical examination of the first two objections reveals that in
fact one can arrive at the above result only by first assuming the existence
and interrelations of external things, as ordinary naive consciousness does
, and then investigating how this external world enters our consciousness by
means of our organism. We have seen that between receiving a sense impressi
on and becoming conscious of a sensation, every trace of such an external wo
rld is lost, and all that remains in consciousness are our representations.
We must therefore assume that our picture of the external world is built up
by the soul, using the material of sensations. First of all, a spatial pictu
re is constructed using the sensations produced by sight and touch, and sens
ations arising from the other senses are then added. When we are compelled t
o think of a certain complex of sensations as connected, we are led to the c
oncept of matter, which we consider to be the carrier of sensations. If we n
otice that some sensations associated with a substance disappear, while othe
rs arise, we ascribe this to a change regulated by the causal laws in the wo
rld of phenomena. According to this view, our whole world-picture is compose
d of subjective sensations arranged by our own soul-activity. Hartmann says:
“Thus all that the subject perceives are modifications of its own soul-con
dition and nothing else.”
Let us examine how this conviction is arrived at. The argument may be summar
ized as follows: If an external world exists then we do not perceive it as s
uch, but through our organism transform it into a world of representations.
When followed out consistently, this is a self-canceling assumption. In any
case, can this argument be used to establish any conviction at all? Are we j
ustified in regarding our given world-picture as a subjective content of rep
resentations, just because we arrive inevitably at this conclusion if we sta
rt from the assumption made by naive consciousness? After all, the aim was j
ust to prove this assumption invalid. It should then be possible for an asse
rtion to be wrong, and yet lead to a correct result. This can happen, but th
e result cannot then be said to have been proved by the assertion.
The view which accepts the reality of our directly given picture of the worl
d as certain and beyond doubt, is usually called naive realism. The opposite
view, which regards this world-picture as merely the content of our conscio
usness, is called transcendental idealism. Thus the preceding discussion cou
ld also be summarized as follows: Transcendental idealism demonstrates its t
ruth by using the same premises as the naive realism which it aims to refute
. Transcendental idealism is justified if naive realism is proved incorrect,
but its incorrectness is only demonstrated by means of the incorrect view i
tself. Once this is realized there is no alternative but to abandon this pat
h and to attempt to arrive at another view of the world. Does this mean proc
eeding by trial and error until we happen to hit on the right one? That is H
artmann's approach when he believes his epistemological standpoint establish
ed on the grounds that his view explains the phenomena, whereas others do no
t. According to him the various world-views are engaged in a sort of struggl
e for existence in which the fittest is ultimately accepted as victor. But t
he inconsistency of this procedure is immediately apparent, for there might
well be other hypotheses which would explain the phenomena equally satisfact
orily. For this reason we prefer to adhere to the above argument for the ref
uting of naive realism, and investigate precisely where its weakness lies. A
fter all, naive realism is the viewpoint from which we all start. It is ther
efore the proper starting-point for a critical investigation. By recognizing
its shortcomings we shall be led to the right path much more surely than by
simply trusting to luck.
The subjectivism outlined above is based on the use of thinking for elaborat
ing certain facts. This presupposes that, starting from certain facts, a cor
rect conclusion can be obtained through logical thinking (logical combinatio
n of particular observations). But the justification for using thinking in t
his way is not examined by this philosophical approach. This is its weakness
. While naive realism begins by assuming that the content of experience, as
we perceive it, is an objective reality without examining if this is so, the
standpoint just characterized sets out from the equally uncritical convicti
on that thinking can be used to arrive at scientifically valid conclusions.
In contrast to naive realism, this view could be called naive rationalism. T
o justify this term, a brief comment on the concept of “naive” is necessar
y here. A. Doring tries to define this concept in his essay, Ueber den Begri
ff des naiven Realismus (Concerning the Concept of naive Realism). He says:
“The concept 'naive' designates the zero point in the scale of reflection a
bout one's own relation to what one is doing. A naive content may well be co
rrect, for although it is unreflecting and therefore simply non-critical or
uncritical, this lack of reflection and criticism excludes the objective ass
urance of truth, and includes the possibility and danger of error, yet by no
means necessitates them. One can be equally naive in one's life of feeling
and will, as in the life of representing and thinking in the widest sense; f
urthermore, one may express this inner life in a naive manner rather than re
pressing and modifying it through consideration and reflection. To be naive
means not to be influenced, or at least not consciously influenced by tradit
ion, education or rules; it means to be, in all spheres of life, what the ro
ot of the word: 'nativus' implies. i.e., unconscious, impulsive, instinctive
, daimonic.”
Starting from this, we will endeavor to define “naive” still more precisel
y. In all our activities, two things must be taken into account: the activit
y itself, and our knowledge of its laws. We may be completely absorbed in th
e activity without worrying about its laws. The artist is in this position w
hen he does not reflect about the laws according to which he creates, but ap
plies them, using feeling and sensitivity. We may call him “naive.” It is
possible, however, to observe oneself, and enquire into the laws inherent in
one's own activity, thus abandoning the naive consciousness just described
through knowing exactly the scope of and justification for what one does. Th
is I shall call critical. I believe this definition comes nearest to the mea
ning of this concept as it has been used in philosophy, with greater or less
er clarity, ever since Kant. Critical reflection then is the opposite of the
naive approach. A critical attitude is one that comes to grips with the law
s of its own activity in order to discover their reliability and limits. Epi
stemology can only be a critical science. For its object is an essentially s
ubjective activity of man: cognition, and it wishes to demonstrate the laws
inherent in cognition. Thus everything “naive” must be excluded from this
science. Its strength must lie in doing precisely what many thinkers, inclin
ed more toward the practical doing of things, pride themselves that they hav
e never done, namely, “think about thinking.”
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
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