Philosophy 版 (精华区)
发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Starting Point of Epistemology VI
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日23:15:54 星期四), 站内信件
Truth and Knowledge
The Starting Point of Epistemology
As we have seen in the preceding chapters, an epistemological investigation
must begin by rejecting existing knowledge. Knowledge is something brought i
nto existence by man, something that has arisen through his activity. If a t
heory of knowledge is really to explain the whole sphere of knowledge, then
it must start from something still quite untouched by the activity of thinki
ng, and what is more, from something which lends to this activity its first
impulse. This starting point must lie outside the act of cognition, it must
not itself be knowledge. But it must be sought immediately prior to cognitio
n, so that the very next step man takes beyond it is the activity of cogniti
on. This absolute starting point must be determined in such a way that it ad
mits nothing already derived from cognition.
Only our directly given world-picture can offer such a starting point, i.e.
that picture of the world which presents itself to man before he has subject
ed it to the processes of knowledge in any way, before he has asserted or de
cided anything at all about it by means of thinking. This “directly given”
picture is what flits past us, disconnected, but still undifferentiated. In
it, nothing appears distinguished from, related to, or determined by, anyth
ing else. At this stage, so to speak, no object or event is yet more importa
nt or significant than any other. The most rudimentary organ of an animal, w
hich, in the light of further knowledge may turn out to be quite unimportant
for its development and life, appears before us with the same claims for ou
r attention as the noblest and most essential part of the organism. Before o
ur conceptual activity begins, the world-picture contains neither substance,
quality nor cause and effect; distinctions between matter and spirit, body
and soul, do not yet exist. Furthermore, any other predicate must also be ex
cluded from the world-picture at this stage. The picture can be considered n
either as reality nor as appearance, neither subjective nor objective, neith
er as chance nor as necessity; whether it is “thing-in-itself,” or mere re
presentation, cannot be decided at this stage. For, as we have seen, knowled
ge of physics and physiology which leads to a classification of the “given”
under one or the other of the above headings, cannot be a basis for a theor
y of knowledge.
If a being with a fully developed human intelligence were suddenly created o
ut of nothing and then confronted the world, the first impression made on hi
s senses and his thinking would be something like what 1 have just character
ized as the directly given world-picture. In practice, man never encounters
this world-picture in this form at any time in his life; he never experience
s a division between a purely passive awareness of the “directly-given” an
d a thinking recognition of it. This fact could lead to doubt about my descr
iption of the starting point for a theory of knowledge. Hartmann says for ex
ample:
“We are not concerned with the hypothetical content of consciousness in a c
hild which is just becoming conscious or in an animal at the lowest level of
life, since the philosophizing human being has no experience of this; if he
tries to reconstruct the content of consciousness of beings on primitive bi
ogenetic or ontogenetic levels, he must base his conclusions on the way he e
xperiences his own consciousness. Our first task, therefore, is to establish
the content of man's consciousness when he begins philosophical reflection.
”
The objection to this, however, is that the world-picture with which we begi
n philosophical reflection already contains predicates mediated through cogn
ition. These cannot be accepted uncritically, but must be carefully removed
from the world-picture so that it can be considered free of anything introdu
ced through the process of knowledge. This division between the “given” an
d the “known” will not in fact, coincide with any stage of human developme
nt; the boundary must be drawn artificially. But this can be done at every l
evel of development so long as we draw the dividing line correctly between w
hat confronts us free of all conceptual definitions, and what cognition subs
equently makes of it. It might be objected here that I have already made use
of a number of conceptual definitions in order to extract from the world-pi
cture as it appears when completed by man, that other world-picture which I
described as the directly given. However, what we have extracted by means of
thought does not characterize the directly given world-picture, nor define
nor express anything about it; what it does is to guide our attention to the
dividing line where the starting point for cognition is to be found. The qu
estion of truth or error, correctness or incorrectness, does not enter into
this statement, which is concerned with the moment preceding the point where
a theory of knowledge begins. It serves merely to guide us deliberately to
this starting point. No one proceeding to consider epistemological questions
could possibly be said to be standing at the starting point of cognition, f
or he already possesses a certain amount of knowledge. To remove from this a
ll that has been contributed by cognition, and to establish a pre-cognitive
starting point, can only be done conceptually. But such concepts are not of
value as knowledge; they have the purely negative function of removing from
sight all that belongs to knowledge and of leading us to the point where kno
wledge begins. These considerations act as signposts pointing to where the a
ct of cognition first appears, but at this stage, do not themselves form par
t of the act of cognition. Whatever the epistemologist proposes in order to
establish his starting point raises, to begin with, no question of truth or
error, but only of its suitability for this task. From the starting point, t
oo, all error is excluded, for error can only begin with cognition, and ther
efore cannot arise before cognition sets in.
Only a theory of knowledge that starts from considerations of this kind can
claim to observe this last principle. For if the starting point is some obje
ct (or subject) to which is attached any conceptual definition, then the pos
sibility of error is already present in the starting point, namely in the de
finition itself. Justification of the definition will then depend upon the l
aws inherent in the act of cognition. But these laws can be discovered only
in the course of the epistemological investigation itself. Error is wholly e
xcluded only by saying: I eliminate from my world-picture all conceptual def
initions arrived at through cognition and retain only what enters my field o
f observation without any activity on my part. When on principle I refrain f
rom making any statement, I cannot make a mistake.
Error, in relation to knowledge, i.e. epistemologically, can occur only with
in the act of cognition. Sense deceptions are not errors. That the moon upon
rising appears larger than it does at its zenith is not an error but a fact
governed by the laws of nature. A mistake in knowledge would occur only if,
in using thinking to combine the given perceptions, we misinterpreted “lar
ger” and “smaller.” But this interpretation is part of the act of cogniti
on.
To understand cognition exactly in all its details, its origin and starting
point must first be grasped. It is clear, furthermore, that what precedes th
is primary starting point must not be included in an explanation of cognitio
n, but must be presupposed. Investigation of the essence of what is here pre
supposed, is the task of the various branches of scientific knowledge. The p
resent aim, however, is not to acquire specific knowledge of this or that el
ement, but to investigate cognition itself. Until we have understood the act
of knowledge, we cannot judge the significance of statements about the cont
ent of the world arrived at through the act of cognition.
This is why the directly given is not defined as long as the relation of suc
h a definition to what is defined is not known. Even the concept: “directly
given” includes no statement about what precedes cognition. Its only purpo
se is to point to this given, to turn our attention to it. At the starting p
oint of a theory of knowledge, the concept is only the first initial relatio
n between cognition and world-content. This description even allows for the
possibility that the total world-content would turn out to be only a figment
of our own “I,” which would mean that extreme subjectivism would be true;
subjectivism is not something that exists as given. It can only be a conclu
sion drawn from considerations based on cognition, i.e. it would have to be
confirmed by the theory of knowledge; it could not be assumed as its basis.
This directly given world-content includes everything that enters our experi
ence in the widest sense: sensations. perceptions, opinions, feelings, deeds
, pictures of dreams and imaginations, representations, concepts and ideas.
Illusions and hallucinations too, at this stage are equal to the rest of the
world-content. For their relation to other perceptions can be revealed only
through observation based on cognition.
When epistemology starts from the assumption that all the elements just ment
ioned constitute the content of our consciousness, the following question im
mediately arises: How is it possible for us to go beyond our consciousness a
nd recognize actual existence; where can the leap be made from our subjectiv
e experiences to what lies beyond them? When such an assumption is not made,
the situation is different. Both consciousness and the representation of th
e “I” are, to begin with, only parts of the directly given and the relatio
nship of the latter to the two former must be discovered by means of cogniti
on. Cognition is not to be defined in terms of consciousness, but vice versa
: both consciousness and the relation between subject and object in terms of
cognition. Since the “given” is left without predicate, to begin with, th
e question arises as to how it is defined at all; how can any start be made
with cognition? How does one part of the world-picture come to be designated
as perception and the other as concept, one thing as existence, another as
appearance, this as cause and that as effect; how is it that we can separate
ourselves from what is objective and regard ourselves as “I” in contrast
to the “not-I?”
We must find the bridge from the world-picture as given, to that other world
-picture which we build up by means of cognition. Here, however, we meet wit
h the following difficulty: As long as we merely stare passively at the give
n we shall never find a point of attack where we can gain a foothold, and fr
om where we can then proceed with cognition. Somewhere in the given we must
find a place where we can set to work, where something exists which is akin
to cognition. If everything were really only given, we could do no more than
merely stare into the external world and stare indifferently into the inner
world of our individuality. We would at most be able to describe things as
something external to us; we should never be able to understand them. Our co
ncepts would have a purely external relation to that to which they referred;
they would not be inwardly related to it. For real cognition depends on fin
ding a sphere somewhere in the given where our cognizing activity does not m
erely presuppose something given, but finds itself active in the very essenc
e of the given. In other words: precisely through strict adherence to the gi
ven as merely given, it must become apparent that not everything is given. I
nsistence on the given alone must lead to the discovery of something which g
oes beyond the given. The reason for so insisting is not to establish some a
rbitrary starting point for a theory of knowledge, but to discover the true
one. In this sense, the given also includes what according to its very natur
e is not-given. The latter would appear, to begin with, as formally a part o
f the given, but on closer scrutiny, would reveal its true nature of its own
accord.
The whole difficulty in understanding cognition comes from the fact that we
ourselves do not create the content of the world. If we did this, cognition
would not exist at all. I can only ask questions about something which is gi
ven to me. Something which I create myself, I also determine myself, so that
I do not need to ask for an explanation for it.
This is the second step in our theory of knowledge. It consists in the postu
late: In the sphere of the given there must be something in relation to whic
h our activity does not hover in emptiness, but where the content of the wor
ld itself enters this activity.
The starting point for our theory of knowledge was placed so that it complet
ely precedes the cognizing activity, and thus cannot prejudice cognition and
obscure it; in the same way, the next step has been defined so that there c
an be no question of either error or incorrectness. For this step does not p
rejudge any issue, but merely shows what conditions are necessary if knowled
ge is to arise at all. It is essential to remember that it is we ourselves w
ho postulate what characteristic feature that part of the world-content must
possess with which our activity of cognition can make a start.
This, in fact, is the only thing we can do. For the world-content as given i
s completely undefined. No part of it of its own accord can provide the occa
sion for setting it up as the starting point for bringing order into chaos.
The activity of cognition must therefore issue a decree and declare what cha
racteristics this starting point must manifest. Such a decree in no way infr
inges on the quality of the given. It does not introduce any arbitrary asser
tion into the science of epistemology. In fact, it asserts nothing, but clai
ms only that if knowledge is to be made explainable, then we must look for s
ome part of the given which can provide a starting point for cognition, as d
escribed above. If this exists, cognition can be explained, but not otherwis
e. Thus, while the given provides the general starting point for our theory
of knowledge, it must now be narrowed down to some particular point of the g
iven.
Let us now take a closer look at this demand. Where, within the world-pictur
e, do we find something that is not merely given, but only given insofar as
it is being produced in the actual act of cognition?
It is essential to realize that the activity of producing something in the a
ct of cognition must present itself to us as something also directly given.
It must not be necessary to draw conclusions before recognizing it. This at
once indicates that sense impressions do not meet our requirements. For we c
annot know directly but only indirectly that sense impressions do not occur
without activity on our part; this we discover only by considering physical
and physiological factors. But we do know absolutely directly that concepts
and ideas appear only in the act of cognition and through this enter the sph
ere of the directly given. In this respect concepts and ideas do not deceive
anyone. A hallucination may appear as something externally given, but one w
ould never take one's own concepts to be something given without one's own t
hinking activity. A lunatic regards things and relations as real to which ar
e applied the predicate “reality,” although in fact they are not real; but
he would never say that his concepts and ideas entered the sphere of the gi
ven without his own activity. It is a characteristic feature of all the rest
of our world-picture that it must be given if we are to experience it; the
only case in which the opposite occurs is that of concepts and ideas: these
we must produce if we are to experience them. Concepts and ideas alone are g
iven us in a form that could be called intellectual seeing. Kant and the lat
er philosophers who follow in his steps, completely deny this ability to man
, because it is said that all thinking refers only to objects and does not i
tself produce anything. In intellectual seeing the content must be contained
within the thought-form itself. But is this not precisely the case with pur
e concepts and ideas? (By concept, I mean a principle according to which the
disconnected elements of perception become joined into a unity. Causality,
for example, is a concept. An idea is a concept with a greater content. Orga
nism, considered quite abstractly, is an idea.) However, they must be consid
ered in the form which they possess while still quite free of any empirical
content. If, for example, the pure idea of causality is to be grasped, then
one must not choose a particular instance of causality or the sum total of a
ll causality; it is essential to take hold of the pure concept, Causality. C
ause and effect must be sought in the world, but before we can discover it i
n the world we ourselves must first produce causality as a thought-form. If
one clings to the Kantian assertion that of themselves concepts are empty, i
t would be impossible to use concepts to determine anything about the given
world. Suppose two elements of the world-content were given: a and b. If I a
m to find a relation between them, I must do so with the help of a principle
which has a definite content; I can only produce this principle myself in t
he act of cognition; I cannot derive it from the objects, for the definition
of the objects is only to be obtained by means of the principle. Thus a pri
nciple by means of which we define objects belongs entirely to the conceptua
l sphere alone.
Before proceeding further, a possible objection must be considered. It might
appear that this discussion is unconsciously introducing the representation
of the “I,” of the “personal subject,” and using it without first justi
fying it. For example, in statements like “we produce concepts” or “we in
sist on this or that.” But, in fact, my explanation contains nothing which
implies that such statements are more than turns of phrase. As shown earlier
, the fact that the act of cognition depends upon and proceeds from an “I,”
can be established only through considerations which themselves make use of
cognition. Thus, to begin with, the discussion must be limited to the act o
f cognition alone, without considering the cognizing subject. All that has b
een established thus far is the fact that something “given” exists; and th
at somewhere in this “given” the above described postulate arises; and las
tly, that this postulate corresponds to the sphere of concepts and ideas. Th
is is not to deny that its source is the “I.” But these two initial steps
in the theory of knowledge must first be defined in their pure form.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
※ 来源:·哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn·[FROM: 天外飞仙]
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