Philosophy 版 (精华区)
发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: VIII
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日23:18:34 星期四), 站内信件
Truth and Knowledge
Theory of Knowledge Free of Assumptions and Fichte's Science of Knowledge
We have now defined the idea of knowledge. In the act of cognition this idea
is directly given in human consciousness. Both outer and inner perceptions,
as well as its own presence are given directly to the “I,” which is the c
enter of consciousness. (It is hardly necessary to say that here “center”
is not meant to denote a particular theory of consciousness, but is used mer
ely for the sake of brevity in order to designate consciousness as a whole.)
The I feels a need to discover more in the given than is directly contained
in it. In contrast to the given world, a second world — the world of think
ing — rises up to meet the I and the I unites the two through its own free
decision, producing what we have defined as the idea of knowledge. Here we s
ee the fundamental difference between the way the concept and the directly g
iven are united within human consciousness to form full reality, and the way
they are found united in the remainder of the world-content. In the entire
remainder of the world picture we must conceive an original union which is a
n inherent necessity; an artificial separation occurs only in relation to kn
owledge at the point where cognition begins; cognition then cancels out this
separation once more, in accordance with the original nature of the objecti
ve world. But in human consciousness the situation is different. Here the un
ion of the two factors of reality depends upon the activity of consciousness
In all other objects, the separation has no significance for the objects th
emselves, but only for knowledge. Their union is original and their separati
on is derived from the union. Cognition separates them only because its natu
re is such that it cannot grasp their union without having first separated t
hem. But the concept and the given reality of consciousness are originally s
eparated, and their union is derived from their original separation; this is
why cognition has the character described here. Just because, in consciousn
ess, idea and given are necessarily separated, for consciousness the whole o
f reality divides into these two factors; and again, just because consciousn
ess can unite them only by its own activity, it can arrive at full reality o
nly by performing the act of cognition. All other categories (ideas), whethe
r or not they are grasped in cognition, are necessarily united with their co
rresponding forms of the given. But the idea of knowledge can be united with
its corresponding given only by the activity of consciousness. Consciousnes
s as a reality exists only if it produces itself. I believe that I have now
cleared the ground sufficiently to enable us to understand Fichte's Science
of Knowledge through recognition of the fundamental mistake contained in it.
Of all Kant's successors, Fichte is the one who felt most keenly that only
a theory of consciousness could provide the foundation for knowledge in any
form, yet he never came to recognize why this is so. He felt that what I hav
e called the second step in the theory of knowledge, and which I formulated
as a postulate, must be actively performed by the I. This can be seen, for e
xample, from these words:
“The science of knowledge, insofar as it is to be a systematic science, is
built up in the same manner in which all possible sciences, insofar as they
are systematic, are built up, that is, through a determination of freedom; w
hich freedom, in the science of knowledge, is particularly determined: to be
come conscious of the general manner of acting of the intelligence. . . . By
means of this free act, something which is in itself already form, namely,
the necessary act of the intelligence, is taken up as content and put into a
new form, that is, the form of knowledge or of consciousness....”
What does Fichte here mean by the “acting of intelligence” if we express i
n clear concepts what he dimly felt? Nothing other than the production of th
e idea of knowledge, taking place in consciousness. Had Fichte become clear
about this, then he would have formulated the above principle as follows: A
science of knowledge has the task of bringing to consciousness the act of co
gnition, insofar as it is still an unconscious activity of the I; it must sh
ow that to objectify the idea of knowledge is a necessary deed of the I.
In his attempt to define the activity of the I, Fichte comes to the conclusi
on: “The I as absolute subject is something, the being (essence) of which c
onsists merely in postulating its own existence.” For Fichte, this postulat
ion of the I is the primal unconditioned deed, “it is the basis of all cons
ciousness.” Therefore, in Fichte's sense too, the I can begin to be active
only through an absolute original decision. But for Fichte it is impossible
to find the actual content for this original activity postulated by the I. H
e had nothing toward which this activity could be directed or by which it co
uld be determined. The I is to do something, but what is it to do? Fichte di
d not formulate the concept of knowledge which the I must produce, and in co
nsequence he strove in vain to define any further activity of the I beyond i
ts original deed. In fact, he finally stated that to investigate any such fu
rther activity does not lie within the scope of theory. In his deduction of
representation, he does not begin from any absolute activity of the I or of
the not-I, but he starts from a state of determination which, at the same ti
me, itself determines, because in his view nothing else is, or can be contai
ned directly in consciousness. What in turn determines the state of determin
ation is left completely undecided in his theory; and because of this uncert
ainty, one is forced beyond theory into practical application of the science
of knowledge. However, through this statement Fichte completely abolishes a
ll cognition. For the practical activity of the I belongs to a different sph
ere altogether. The postulate which I put forward above can clearly be produ
ced by the I only in an act which is free, which is not first determined; bu
t when the I cognizes, the important point is that the decision to do so is
directed toward producing the idea of cognition. No doubt the I can do much
else through free decision. But if epistemology is to be the foundation of a
ll knowledge, the decisive point is not to have a definition of an I that is
“free,” but of an I that “cognizes.” Fichte has allowed himself to be t
oo much influenced by his subjective inclinations to present the freedom of
the human personality in the clearest possible light. Harms, in his address,
On the Philosophy of Fichte, (p.15) rightly says: “His world-view is predo
minantly and exclusively ethical, and his theory of knowledge has no other f
eature.” Cognition would have no task to fulfill whatever if all spheres of
reality were given in their totality. But the I, so long as it has not been
inserted by thinking into the systematic whole of the world-picture, also e
xists as something merely directly given, so that it does not suffice to poi
nt to its activity. Yet Fichte is of the opinion that where the I is concern
ed, all that is necessary is to seek and find it. “We have to search for th
e absolute, first, and unconditioned fundamental principle of human knowledg
e. It cannot be proven nor determined if it is to be absolute first principl
e.' We have seen that the only instance where proof and definitions are not
required is in regard to the content of pure logic. The I, however, belongs
to reality, where it is necessary to establish the presence of this or that
category within the given. This Fichte does not do. And this is why he gave
his science of knowledge a mistaken form. Zeller remarks that the logical fo
rmulas by which Fichte attempts to arrive at the concept of the I only light
ly hide his predetermined purpose to reach his goal at any cost, so that the
I could become his starting point. These words refer to the first form in w
hich Fichte presented his science of knowledge in 1794. When it is realized
that, owing to the whole trend of his philosophy, Fichte could not be conten
t with any starting point for knowledge other than an absolute decree, it be
comes clear that he has only two possibilities for making this beginning app
ear intelligible. One possibility is to focus the attention on one or anothe
r of the empirical activities of consciousness, and then crystallize out the
pure concept of the I by gradually stripping away everything that did not o
riginally belong to consciousness. The other possibility is to start directl
y with the original activity of the I, and then to bring its nature to light
through self-contemplation and self-observation. Fichte chose the first pos
sibility at the beginning of his philosophical path, but gradually went over
to the second.
On the basis of Kant's synthesis of “transcendental apperception” Fichte c
ame to the conclusion that the activity of the I consists entirely in combin
ing the material of experience into the form of judgment. To judge means to
combine predicate with subject. This is stated purely formally in the expres
sion: a = a. This proposition could not be made if the unknown factor x whic
h unites the two a's did not rest on an absolute ability of the I, to postul
ate. For the proposition does not mean a exists, but rather: if a exists, th
en so does a. In other words there is no question of postulating a absolutel
y. In order, therefore, to arrive at something which is valid in a quite str
aightforward way, the only possibility is to declare the act of postulating
as such to be absolute. Therefore, while a is conditional the postulation of
a is itself unconditional. This postulation, however, is a deed of the I. T
o the I is ascribed the absolute and unconditional ability to postulate. In
the proposition a=a, one a is postulated only because the other a is already
postulated, and indeed is postulated by the I. “If a is postulated in the
I, then it is postulated, or then it is. This connection is possible only on
condition that there exists in the I something which is always constant, so
mething that leads over from one a to the other. The above mentioned x is ba
sed on this constant element. The I which postulates the one a is the same a
s the I which postulates the other a. This means that I = I. This propositio
n expressed in the form of a judgment: If the I exists, then the I exists, i
s meaningless. The I is not postulated by presupposing another I; it presupp
oses itself. This means: the I simply is, absolutely and unconditionally. Th
e hypothetical form of a judgment, which is the form of all judgments, when
an absolute I is not presupposed, here is transformed into a principle of ab
solute existence: I simply am. Fichte also expresses this as follows: “The
I originally and absolutely postulates its own being.” This whole deduction
of Fichte's is clearly nothing but a kind of pedagogical discussion, the ai
m of which is to guide his reader to the point where knowledge of the uncond
itional activity of the I dawns in him. His aim is to bring the activity of
the I emphatically home to the reader, for without this activity there is no
I.
Let us now survey Fichte's line of thought once more. On closer inspection o
ne sees that there is a break in its sequence; a break, indeed, of a kind th
at casts doubt upon the correctness of his view of the original deed of the
I. What is essentially absolute when the I postulates? The judgment is made:
If a exists, then so does a. The a is postulated by the I. There can, there
fore, be no doubt about the postulation as such. But even if the I is uncond
itioned insofar as its own activity is concerned, nevertheless the I cannot
but postulate something. It cannot postulate the “activity, as such, by its
elf,” but only a definite activity. In short: the postulation must have a c
ontent. However, the I cannot derive this content from itself, for by itself
it can do no more than eternally postulate its own postulation. Therefore t
here must be something which is produced by this postulation, by this absolu
te activity of the I. Unless the I sets to work on something given which it
postulates, it can do “nothing” and hence cannot postulate either. Fichte'
s own principle actually shows this: The I postulates its existence. This ex
istence is a category. This means we have arrived at our principle: The acti
vity of the I is to postulate, as a free decision, the concepts and ideas of
the given. Fichte arrives at his conclusion only because he unconsciously s
ets out to prove that the I “exists.” Had he worked out the concept of cog
nition, he would then have arrived at the true starting point of a theory of
knowledge, namely: The I postulates cognition. Because Fichte is not clear
as to what it is that determines the activity of the I, he simply characteri
zes this activity as the postulation of being, of existence. In doing so, he
also limits the absolute activity of the I. If the I is only unconditioned
in its “postulation of existence.” everything else the I does must be cond
itioned. But then, all possible ways to pass from what is unconditioned to t
he conditioned are blocked. If the I is unconditioned only in the one direct
ion described, it immediately ceases to be possible for the I to postulate,
through an absolute act, anything but its own being. This makes it necessary
to indicate the basis on which all the other activities of the I depend. Fi
chte sought for this in vain, as we have already seen.
This is why he turned to the other of the two possibilities indicated for de
ducing the I. As early as 1797, in his First Introduction to the Science of
Knowledge, he recommends self-observation as the right method for attaining
knowledge of the essential being of the I:
“Be aware of yourself, withdraw your attention from all that surrounds you
and turn it toward your inner being — this is the first demand that philoso
phy makes on the pupil. What is essential is not outside of you, but solely
within yourself.
To introduce the science of knowledge in this way is indeed a great advance
on his earlier introduction. In self-observation, the activity of the I is a
ctually seen, not one-sidedly turned in a particular direction, not as merel
y postulating existence, but revealing many aspects of itself as it strives
to grasp the directly given world-content in thinking. Self-observation reve
als the I engaged in the activity of building up the world-picture by combin
ing the given with concepts. However, someone who has not elaborated the abo
ve considerations for himself, and who therefore does not know that the I on
ly arrives at the full content of reality when it approaches the given with
its thought-forms, for him, the process of knowledge appears to consist in s
pinning the world out of the I itself. This is why Fichte sees the world-pic
ture more and more as a construction of the I. He emphasizes ever more stron
gly that for the science of knowledge it is essential to awaken the faculty
for watching the I while it constructs the world. He who is able to do this
appears to Fichte to be at a higher stage of knowledge than someone who is a
ble to see only the construction, the finished product. He who considers onl
y the world of objects does not recognize that they have first been created
by the I. He who observes the I while it constructs, sees the foundation of
the finished world-picture; he knows the means by which it has come into bei
ng, and it appears to him as the result of presuppositions which for him are
given. Ordinary consciousness sees only what is postulated, what is in some
way or other determined; it does not provide insight into the premises, int
o the reasons why something is postulated in just the way it is, and not oth
erwise. For Fichte it is the task of a completely new sense organ to mediate
knowledge of these premises. This he expresses most clearly in his Introduc
tory Lecture to the Science of Knowledge, delivered at Berlin University in
the autumn of 1813:
“This science presupposes a completely new inner sense organ, through which
a new world is revealed which does not exist for the ordinary man at all.”
“The world revealed by this new sense, and therefore also the sense itself
, is so far clearly defined: it consists in seeing the premises on which is
based the judgment that 'something is'; that is, seeing the foundation of ex
istence which, just because it is the foundation, is in itself nothing else
and cannot be defined.”
Here too, Fichte lacks clear insight into the content of the activity carrie
d out by the I. And he never attained this insight. That is why his science
of knowledge could never become what he intended it to be: a philosophical f
oundation for science in general in the form of a theory of knowledge. Had h
e once recognized that the activity of the I can only be postulated by the I
itself, this insight would also have led him to see that the activity must
likewise be determined by the I itself. This, however, can occur only by a c
ontent being given to the otherwise purely formal activity of the I. As this
content must be introduced by the I itself into its otherwise quite undeter
mined activity, the activity as such must also be determined by the I itself
in accordance with the I's own nature. Otherwise its activity could not be
postulated by the I, but at most by a “thing-in-itself” within the I, whos
e instrument the I would be. Had Fichte attempted to discover how the I dete
rmines its own activity, he would have arrived at the concept of knowledge w
hich is to be produced by the I. Fichte's science of knowledge proves that e
ven the acutest thinker cannot successfully contribute to any field of knowl
edge if he is unable to come to the right thought-form (category, idea) whic
h, when supplemented by the given, constitutes reality. Such a thinker is li
ke a person to whom wonderful melodies are played, but he does not hear them
because he lacks an ear for music. Consciousness, as given, can be describe
d only by someone who knows how to take possession of the “idea of consciou
sness.”
Fichte once came very near the truth. In his Introduction to the Science of
Knowledge (1797), he says that there are two theoretical systems: dogmatism
— in which the I is determined by the objects; and idealism, in which the o
bjects are determined by the I. In his opinion both are possible world-views
. Both are capable of being built up into a consistent system. But the adher
ents of dogmatism must renounce the independence of the I and make it depend
ent on the “thing-in-itself.” For the adherents of idealism, the opposite
is the case. Which of the two systems a philosopher is to choose, Fichte lea
ves completely to the preference of the individual. But if one wishes the I
to retain its independence, then one will cease to believe in external thing
s and devote oneself to idealism.
This line of thought fails to consider one thing, namely that the I cannot r
each any choice or decision which has some real foundation if it does not pr
esuppose something which enables it to do so. Everything determined by the I
remains empty and without content if the I does not find something that is
full of content and determined through and through, which then makes it poss
ible for the I to determine the given and, in doing so, also enables it to c
hoose between idealism and dogmatism. This something which is permeated with
content through and through is, however, the world of thinking. And to dete
rmine the given by means of thinking is to cognize. No matter from what aspe
ct Fichte is considered, we shall find that his line of thought gains power
and life when we think of the activity of the I, which he presents as grey a
nd empty of content, as filled and organized by what we have called the proc
ess of cognition.
The I is freely able to become active of itself, and therefore it can also p
roduce the category of cognition through self-determination; in the rest of
the world, by objective necessity the categories are connected with the give
n corresponding to them. It must be the task of ethics and metaphysics to in
vestigate the nature of this free self-determination, on the basis of our th
eory of knowledge. These sciences will also have to discuss whether the I is
able to objectify ideas other than those of cognition. The present discussi
on shows that the I is free when it cognizes, when it objectifies the ideas
of cognition. For when the directly given and the thought-form belonging to
it are united by the I in the process of cognition, then the union of these
two elements of reality, which otherwise would forever remain separated in c
onsciousness, can only take place through a free act.
Our discussion sheds a completely new light on critical idealism. Anyone who
has acquainted himself intimately with Fichte's system will know that it wa
s a point of vital importance for this philosopher to uphold the principle t
hat nothing from the external world can enter the I, that nothing takes plac
e in the I which is not originally postulated by the I itself. Yet it is bey
ond all doubt that no idealism can derive from the I that form of the world-
content which is here described as the directly given. This form of the worl
d-content can only be given; it can never be constructed out of thinking. On
e need only consider that if all the colors were given us with the exception
of one single shade, even then we could not begin to provide that shade out
of the I alone. We can form a picture of distant regions that we have never
seen, provided we have once personally experienced, as given, the various e
lements needed to form the picture. Then, out of the single facts given us,
we combine the picture according to given information. We should strive in v
ain to invent for ourselves even a single perceptual element that has never
appeared within our sphere of the given. It is, however, one thing merely to
be aware of the given world: it is quite another to recognize its essential
nature. This latter, though intimately connected with the world-content, do
es not become clear to us unless we ourselves build up reality out of the gi
ven and the activity of thinking. The essential What of the given is postula
ted for the I only through the I itself. Yet the I would have no occasion to
postulate within itself the nature of something given if it did not first f
ind itself confronted by a completely undetermined given. Therefore, what is
postulated by the I as the nature and being of the world is not postulated
without the I, but through it.
The true shape is not the first in which reality comes before the I, but the
shape the I gives it. That first shape, in fact, has no significance for th
e objective world; it is significant only as a basis for the process of cogn
ition. Thus it is not that shape which the theory of knowledge gives to the
world which is subjective; the subjective shape is that in which the I at fi
rst encounters it. If, like Volkelt and others, one wishes to call this give
n world “experience,” then one will have to say: The world-picture which,
owing to the constitution of our consciousness, appears to us in a subjectiv
e form as experience, is completed through knowledge to become what it reall
y is.
Our theory of knowledge supplies the foundation for true idealism in the rea
l sense of the word. It establishes the conviction that in thinking the esse
nce of the world is mediated. Through thinking alone the relationship betwee
n the details of the world-content become manifest, be it the relation of th
e sun to the stone it warms, or the relation of the I to the external world.
In thinking alone the element is given which determines all things in their
relations to one another.
An objection which Kantianism could still bring forward would be that the de
finition of the given described above holds good in the end only for the I.
To this I must reply that according to the view of the world outlined here,
the division between I and external world, like all other divisions, is vali
d only within the given and from this it follows that the term “for the I”
has no significance when things have been understood by thinking, because t
hinking unites all opposites. The I ceases to be seen as something separated
from the external world when the world is permeated by thinking; it therefo
re no longer makes sense to speak of definitions as being valid for the I on
ly.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
※ 来源:·哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn·[FROM: 天外飞仙]
Powered by KBS BBS 2.0 (http://dev.kcn.cn)
页面执行时间:209.208毫秒