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发信人: songs (今夜有丁香雨), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: SECOND PART. TRANSCENDENTAL LOGIC.(11)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年06月27日22:18:12 星期三), 站内信件
4. THE POSTULATES OF EMPIRICAL THOUGHT.
1. That which agrees with the formal conditions (intuition and
conception) of experience, is possible.
2. That which coheres with the material conditions of experience
(sensation), is real.
3. That whose coherence with the real is determined according to
universal conditions of experience is (exists) necessary.
Explanation.
The categories of modality possess this peculiarity, that they do
not in the least determine the object, or enlarge the conception to
which they are annexed as predicates, but only express its relation to
the faculty of cognition. Though my conception of a thing is in itself
complete, I am still entitled to ask whether the object of it is
merely possible, or whether it is also real, or, if the latter,
whether it is also necessary. But hereby the object itself is not more
definitely determined in thought, but the question is only in what
relation it, including all its determinations, stands to the
understanding and its employment in experience, to the empirical
faculty of judgement, and to the reason of its application to
experience.
For this very reason, too, the categories of modality are nothing
more than explanations of the conceptions of possibility, reality, and
necessity, as employed in experience, and at the same time,
restrictions of all the categories to empirical use alone, not
authorizing the transcendental employment of them. For if they are
to have something more than a merely logical significance, and to be
something more than a mere analytical expression of the form of
thought, and to have a relation to things and their possibility,
reality, or necessity, they must concern possible experience and its
synthetical unity, in which alone objects of cognition can be given.
The postulate of the possibility of things requires also, that the
conception of the things agree with the formal conditions of our
experience in general. But this, that is to say, the objective form of
experience, contains all the kinds of synthesis which are requisite
for the cognition of objects. A conception which contains a
synthesis must be regarded as empty and, without reference to an
object, if its synthesis does not belong to experience- either as
borrowed from it, and in this case it is called an empirical
conception, or such as is the ground and a priori condition of
experience (its form), and in this case it is a pure conception, a
conception which nevertheless belongs to experience, inasmuch as its
object can be found in this alone. For where shall we find the
criterion or character of the possibility of an object which is
cogitated by means of an a priori synthetical conception, if not in
the synthesis which constitutes the form of empirical cognition of
objects? That in such a conception no contradiction exists is indeed a
necessary logical condition, but very far from being sufficient to
establish the objective reality of the conception, that is, the
possibility of such an object as is thought in the conception. Thus,
in the conception of a figure which is contained within two straight
lines, there is no contradiction, for the conceptions of two
straight lines and of their junction contain no negation of a
figure. The impossibility in such a case does not rest upon the
conception in itself, but upon the construction of it in space, that
is to say, upon the conditions of space and its determinations. But
these have themselves objective reality, that is, they apply to
possible things, because they contain a priori the form of
experience in general.
And now we shall proceed to point out the extensive utility and
influence of this postulate of possibility. When I represent to myself
a thing that is permanent, so that everything in it which changes
belongs merely to its state or condition, from such a conception alone
I never can cognize that such a thing is possible. Or, if I
represent to myself something which is so constituted that, when it is
posited, something else follows always and infallibly, my thought
contains no self-contradiction; but whether such a property as
causality is to be found in any possible thing, my thought alone
affords no means of judging. Finally, I can represent to myself
different things (substances) which are so constituted that the
state or condition of one causes a change in the state of the other,
and reciprocally; but whether such a relation is a property of
things cannot be perceived from these conceptions, which contain a
merely arbitrary synthesis. Only from the fact, therefore, that
these conceptions express a priori the relations of perceptions in
every experience, do we know that they possess objective reality, that
is, transcendental truth; and that independent of experience, though
not independent of all relation to form of an experience in general
and its synthetical unity, in which alone objects can be empirically
cognized.
But when we fashion to ourselves new conceptions of substances,
forces, action, and reaction, from the material presented to us by
perception, without following the example of experience in their
connection, we create mere chimeras, of the possibility of which we
cannot discover any criterion, because we have not taken experience
for our instructress, though we have borrowed the conceptions from
her. Such fictitious conceptions derive their character of possibility
not, like the categories, a priori, as conceptions on which all
experience depends, but only, a posteriori, as conceptions given by
means of experience itself, and their possibility must either be
cognized a posteriori and empirically, or it cannot be cognized at
all. A substance which is permanently present in space, yet without
filling it (like that tertium quid between matter and the thinking
subject which some have tried to introduce into metaphysics), or a
peculiar fundamental power of the mind of intuiting the future by
anticipation (instead of merely inferring from past and present
events), or, finally, a power of the mind to place itself in community
of thought with other men, however distant they may be- these are
conceptions the possibility of which has no ground to rest upon. For
they are not based upon experience and its known laws; and, without
experience, they are a merely arbitrary conjunction of thoughts,
which, though containing no internal contradiction, has no claim to
objective reality, neither, consequently, to the possibility of such
an object as is thought in these conceptions. As far as concerns
reality, it is self-evident that we cannot cogitate such a possibility
in concreto without the aid of experience; because reality is
concerned only with sensation, as the matter of experience, and not
with the form of thought, with which we can no doubt indulge in
shaping fancies.
But I pass by everything which derives its possibility from
reality in experience, and I purpose treating here merely of the
possibility of things by means of a priori conceptions. I maintain,
then, that the possibility of things is not derived from such
conceptions per se, but only when considered as formal and objective
conditions of an experience in general.
It seems, indeed, as if the possibility of a triangle could be
cognized from the conception of it alone (which is certainly
independent of experience); for we can certainly give to the
conception a corresponding object completely a priori, that is to say,
we can construct it. But as a triangle is only the form of an
object, it must remain a mere product of the imagination, and the
possibility of the existence of an object corresponding to it must
remain doubtful, unless we can discover some other ground, unless we
know that the figure can be cogitated under the conditions upon
which all objects of experience rest. Now, the facts that space is a
formal condition a priori of external experience, that the formative
synthesis, by which we construct a triangle in imagination, is the
very same as that we employ in the apprehension of a phenomenon for
the purpose of making an empirical conception of it, are what alone
connect the notion of the possibility of such a thing, with the
conception of it. In the same manner, the possibility of continuous
quantities, indeed of quantities in general, for the conceptions of
them are without exception synthetical, is never evident from the
conceptions in themselves, but only when they are considered as the
formal conditions of the determination of objects in experience. And
where, indeed, should we look for objects to correspond to our
conceptions, if not in experience, by which alone objects are
presented to us? It is, however, true that without antecedent
experience we can cognize and characterize the possibility of
things, relatively to the formal conditions, under which something
is determined in experience as an object, consequently, completely a
priori. But still this is possible only in relation to experience
and within its limits.
The postulate concerning the cognition of the reality of things
requires perception, consequently conscious sensation, not indeed
immediately, that is, of the object itself, whose existence is to be
cognized, but still that the object have some connection with a real
perception, in accordance with the analogies of experience, which
exhibit all kinds of real connection in experience.
From the mere conception of a thing it is impossible to conclude its
existence. For, let the conception be ever so complete, and containing
a statement of all the determinations of the thing, the existence of
it has nothing to do with all this, but only with thew question
whether such a thing is given, so that the perception of it can in
every case precede the conception. For the fact that the conception of
it precedes the perception, merely indicates the possibility of its
existence; it is perception which presents matter to the conception,
that is the sole criterion of reality. Prior to the perception of
the thing, however, and therefore comparatively a priori, we are
able to cognize its existence, provided it stands in connection with
some perceptions according to the principles of the empirical
conjunction of these, that is, in conformity with the analogies of
perception. For, in this case, the existence of the supposed thing
is connected with our perception in a possible experience, and we
are able, with the guidance of these analogies, to reason in the
series of possible perceptions from a thing which we do really
perceive to the thing we do not perceive. Thus, we cognize the
existence of a magnetic matter penetrating all bodies from the
perception of the attraction of the steel-filings by the magnet,
although the constitution of our organs renders an immediate
perception of this matter impossible for us. For, according to the
laws of sensibility and the connected context of our perceptions, we
should in an experience come also on an immediate empirical
intuition of this matter, if our senses were more acute- but this
obtuseness has no influence upon and cannot alter the form of possible
experience in general. Our knowledge of the existence of things
reaches as far as our perceptions, and what may be inferred from
them according to empirical laws, extend. If we do not set out from
experience, or do not proceed according to the laws of the empirical
connection of phenomena, our pretensions to discover the existence
of a thing which we do not immediately perceive are vain. Idealism,
however, brings forward powerful objections to these rules for proving
existence mediately. This is, therefore, the proper place for its
refutation.
REFUTATION OF IDEALISM.
Idealism- I mean material idealism- is the theory which declares the
existence of objects in space without us to be either () doubtful
and indemonstrable, or (2) false and impossible. The first is the
problematical idealism of Descartes, who admits the undoubted
certainty of only one empirical assertion (assertio), to wit, "I
am." The second is the dogmatical idealism of Berkeley, who
maintains that space, together with all the objects of which it is the
inseparable condition, is a thing which is in itself impossible, and
that consequently the objects in space are mere products of the
imagination. The dogmatical theory of idealism is unavoidable, if we
regard space as a property of things in themselves; for in that case
it is, with all to which it serves as condition, a nonentity. But
the foundation for this kind of idealism we have already destroyed
in the transcendental aesthetic. Problematical idealism, which makes
no such assertion, but only alleges our incapacity to prove the
existence of anything besides ourselves by means of immediate
experience, is a theory rational and evidencing a thorough and
philosophical mode of thinking, for it observes the rule not to form a
decisive judgement before sufficient proof be shown. The desired proof
must therefore demonstrate that we have experience of external things,
and not mere fancies. For this purpose, we must prove, that our
internal and, to Descartes, indubitable experience is itself
possible only under the previous assumption of external experience.
THEOREM.
The simple but empirically determined consciousness of
my own existence proves the existence of external
objects in space.
PROOF
I am conscious of my own existence as determined in time. All
determination in regard to time presupposes the existence of something
permanent in perception. But this permanent something cannot be
something in me, for the very reason that my existence in time is
itself determined by this permanent something. It follows that the
perception of this permanent existence is possible only through a
thing without me and not through the mere representation of a thing
without me. Consequently, the determination of my existence in time is
possible only through the existence of real things external to me.
Now, consciousness in time is necessarily connected with the
consciousness of the possibility of this determination in time.
Hence it follows that consciousness in time is necessarily connected
also with the existence of things without me, inasmuch as the
existence of these things is the condition of determination in time.
That is to say, the consciousness of my own existence is at the same
time an immediate consciousness of the existence of other things
without me.
Remark I. The reader will observe, that in the foregoing proof the
game which idealism plays is retorted upon itself, and with more
justice. It assumed that the only immediate experience is internal and
that from this we can only infer the existence of external things.
But, as always happens, when we reason from given effects to
determined causes, idealism bas reasoned with too much haste and
uncertainty, for it is quite possible that the cause of our
representations may lie in ourselves, and that we ascribe it falsely
to external things. But our proof shows that external experience is
properly immediate,* that only by virtue of it- not, indeed, the
consciousness of our own existence, but certainly the determination of
our existence in time, that is, internal experience- is possible. It
is true, that the representation "I am," which is the expression of
the consciousness which can accompany all my thoughts, is that which
immediately includes the existence of a subject. But in this
representation we cannot find any knowledge of the subject, and
therefore also no empirical knowledge, that is, experience. For
experience contains, in addition to the thought of something existing,
intuition, and in this case it must be internal intuition, that is,
time, in relation to which the subject must be determined. But the
existence of external things is absolutely requisite for this purpose,
so that it follows that internal experience is itself possible only
mediately and through external experience.
*The immediate consciousness of the existence of external things is,
in the preceding theorem, not presupposed, but proved, by the
possibility of this consciousness understood by us or not. The
question as to the possibility of it would stand thus: "Have we an
internal sense, but no external sense, and is our belief in external
perception a mere delusion?" But it is evident that, in order merely
to fancy to ourselves anything as external, that is, to present it
to the sense in intuition we must already possess an external sense,
and must thereby distinguish immediately the mere receptivity of an
external intuition from the spontaneity which characterizes every
act of imagination. For merely to imagine also an external sense,
would annihilate the faculty of intuition itself which is to be
determined by the imagination.
Remark II. Now with this view all empirical use of our faculty of
cognition in the determination of time is in perfect accordance. Its
truth is supported by the fact that it is possible to perceive a
determination of time only by means of a change in external
relations (motion) to the permanent in space (for example, we become
aware of the sun's motion by observing the changes of his relation
to the objects of this earth). But this is not all. We find that we
possess nothing permanent that can correspond and be submitted to
the conception of a substance as intuition, except matter. This idea
of permanence is not itself derived from external experience, but is
an a priori necessary condition of all determination of time,
consequently also of the internal sense in reference to our own
existence, and that through the existence of external things. In the
representation "I," the consciousness of myself is not an intuition,
but a merely intellectual representation produced by the spontaneous
activity of a thinking subject. It follows, that this "I" has not
any predicate of intuition, which, in its character of permanence,
could serve as correlate to the determination of time in the
internal sense- in the same way as impenetrability is the correlate of
matter as an empirical intuition.
Remark III. From the fact that the existence of external things is a
necessary condition of the possibility of a determined consciousness
of ourselves, it does not follow that every intuitive representation
of external things involves the existence of these things, for their
representations may very well be the mere products of the
imagination (in dreams as well as in madness); though, indeed, these
are themselves created by the reproduction of previous external
perceptions, which, as has been shown, are possible only through the
reality of external objects. The sole aim of our remarks has, however,
been to prove that internal experience in general is possible only
through external experience in general. Whether this or that
supposed experience be purely imaginary must be discovered from its
particular determinations and by comparing these with the criteria
of all real experience.
Finally, as regards the third postulate, it applies to material
necessity in existence, and not to merely formal and logical necessity
in the connection of conceptions. Now as we cannot cognize
completely a priori the existence of any object of sense, though we
can do so comparatively a priori, that is, relatively to some other
previously given existence- a cognition, however, which can only be of
such an existence as must be contained in the complex of experience,
of which the previously given perception is a part- the necessity of
existence can never be cognized from conceptions, but always, on the
contrary, from its connection with that which is an object of
perception. But the only existence cognized, under the condition of
other given phenomena, as necessary, is the existence of effects
from given causes in conformity with the laws of causality. It is
consequently not the necessity of the existence of things (as
substances), but the necessity of the state of things that we cognize,
and that not immediately, but by means of the existence of other
states given in perception, according to empirical laws of
causality. Hence it follows that the criterion of necessity is to be
found only in the law of possible experience- that everything which
happens is determined a priori in the phenomenon by its cause. Thus we
cognize only the necessity of effects in nature, the causes of which
are given us. Moreover, the criterion of necessity in existence
possesses no application beyond the field of possible experience,
and even in this it is not valid of the existence of things as
substances, because these can never be considered as empirical
effects, or as something that happens and has a beginning.
Necessity, therefore, regards only the relations of phenomena
according to the dynamical law of causality, and the possibility
grounded thereon, of reasoning from some given existence (of a
cause) a priori to another existence (of an effect). "Everything
that happens is hypothetically necessary," is a principle which
subjects the changes that take place in the world to a law, that is,
to a rule of necessary existence, without which nature herself could
not possibly exist. Hence the proposition, "Nothing happens by blind
chance (in mundo non datur casus)," is an a priori law of nature.
The case is the same with the proposition, "Necessity in nature is not
blind," that is, it is conditioned, consequently intelligible
necessity (non datur fatum). Both laws subject the play of change to
"a nature of things (as phenomena)," or, which is the same thing, to
the unity of the understanding, and through the understanding alone
can changes belong to an experience, as the synthetical unity of
phenomena. Both belong to the class of dynamical principles. The
former is properly a consequence of the principle of causality- one of
the analogies of experience. The latter belongs to the principles of
modality, which to the determination of causality adds the
conception of necessity, which is itself, however, subject to a rule
of the understanding. The principle of continuity forbids any leap
in the series of phenomena regarded as changes (in mundo non datur
saltus); and likewise, in the complex of all empirical intuitions in
space, any break or hiatus between two phenomena (non datur hiatus)-
for we can so express the principle, that experience can admit nothing
which proves the existence of a vacuum, or which even admits it as a
part of an empirical synthesis. For, as regards a vacuum or void,
which we may cogitate as out and beyond the field of possible
experience (the world), such a question cannot come before the
tribunal of mere understanding, which decides only upon questions that
concern the employment of given phenomena for the construction of
empirical cognition. It is rather a problem for ideal reason, which
passes beyond the sphere of a possible experience and aims at
forming a judgement of that which surrounds and circumscribes it,
and the proper place for the consideration of it is the transcendental
dialectic. These four propositions, "In mundo non datur hiatus, non
datur saltus, non datur casus, non datur fatum," as well as all
principles of transcendental origin, we could very easily exhibit in
their proper order, that is, in conformity with the order of the
categories, and assign to each its proper place. But the already
practised reader will do this for himself, or discover the clue to
such an arrangement. But the combined result of all is simply this, to
admit into the empirical synthesis nothing which might cause a break
in or be foreign to the understanding and the continuous connection of
all phenomena, that is, the unity of the conceptions of the
understanding. For in the understanding alone is the unity of
experience, in which all perceptions must have their assigned place,
possible.
Whether the field of possibility be greater than that of reality,
and whether the field of the latter be itself greater than that of
necessity, are interesting enough questions, and quite capable of
synthetic solution, questions, however, which come under the
jurisdiction of reason alone. For they are tantamount to asking
whether all things as phenomena do without exception belong to the
complex and connected whole of a single experience, of which every
given perception is a part which therefore cannot be conjoined with
any other phenomena- or, whether my perceptions can belong to more
than one possible experience? The understanding gives to experience,
according to the subjective and formal conditions, of sensibility as
well as of apperception, the rules which alone make this experience
possible. Other forms of intuition besides those of space and time,
other forms of understanding besides the discursive forms of
thought, or of cognition by means of conceptions, we can neither
imagine nor make intelligible to ourselves; and even if we could, they
would still not belong to experience, which is the only mode of
cognition by which objects are presented to us. Whether other
perceptions besides those which belong to the total of our possible
experience, and consequently whether some other sphere of matter
exists, the understanding has no power to decide, its proper
occupation being with the synthesis of that which is given.
Moreover, the poverty of the usual arguments which go to prove the
existence of a vast sphere of possibility, of which all that is real
(every object of experience) is but a small part, is very
remarkable. "All real is possible"; from this follows naturally,
according to the logical laws of conversion, the particular
proposition: "Some possible is real." Now this seems to be
equivalent to: "Much is possible that is not real." No doubt it does
seem as if we ought to consider the sum of the possible to be
greater than that of the real, from the fact that something must be
added to the former to constitute the latter. But this notion of
adding to the possible is absurd. For that which is not in the sum
of the possible, and consequently requires to be added to it, is
manifestly impossible. In addition to accordance with the formal
conditions of experience, the understanding requires a connection with
some perception; but that which is connected with this perception is
real, even although it is not immediately perceived. But that
another series of phenomena, in complete coherence with that which
is given in perception, consequently more than one all-embracing
experience is possible, is an inference which cannot be concluded from
the data given us by experience, and still less without any data at
all. That which is possible only under conditions which are themselves
merely possible, is not possible in any respect. And yet we can find
no more certain ground on which to base the discussion of the question
whether the sphere of possibility is wider than that of experience.
I have merely mentioned these questions, that in treating of the
conception of the understanding, there might be no omission of
anything that, in the common opinion, belongs to them. In reality,
however, the notion of absolute possibility (possibility which is
valid in every respect) is not a mere conception of the understanding,
which can be employed empirically, but belongs to reason alone,
which passes the bounds of all empirical use of the understanding.
We have, therefore, contented ourselves with a merely critical remark,
leaving the subject to be explained in the sequel.
Before concluding this fourth section, and at the same time the
system of all principles of the pure understanding, it seems proper to
mention the reasons which induced me to term the principles of
modality postulates. This expression I do not here use in the sense
which some more recent philosophers, contrary to its meaning with
mathematicians, to whom the word properly belongs, attach to it-
that of a proposition, namely, immediately certain, requiring
neither deduction nor proof. For if, in the case of synthetical
propositions, however evident they may be, we accord to them without
deduction, and merely on the strength of their own pretensions,
unqualified belief, all critique of the understanding is entirely
lost; and, as there is no want of bold pretensions, which the common
belief (though for the philosopher this is no credential) does not
reject, the understanding lies exposed to every delusion and
conceit, without the power of refusing its assent to those assertions,
which, though illegitimate, demand acceptance as veritable axioms.
When, therefore, to the conception of a thing an a priori
determination is synthetically added, such a proposition must
obtain, if not a proof, at least a deduction of the legitimacy of
its assertion.
The principles of modality are, however, not objectively
synthetical, for the predicates of possibility, reality, and necessity
do not in the least augment the conception of that of which they are
affirmed, inasmuch as they contribute nothing to the representation of
the object. But as they are, nevertheless, always synthetical, they
are so merely subjectively. That is to say, they have a reflective
power, and apply to the conception of a thing, of which, in other
respects, they affirm nothing, the faculty of cognition in which the
conception originates and has its seat. So that if the conception
merely agree with the formal conditions of experience, its object is
called possible; if it is in connection with perception, and
determined thereby, the object is real; if it is determined
according to conceptions by means of the connection of perceptions,
the object is called necessary. The principles of modality therefore
predicate of a conception nothing more than the procedure of the
faculty of cognition which generated it. Now a postulate in
mathematics is a practical proposition which contains nothing but
the synthesis by which we present an object to ourselves, and
produce the conception of it, for example- "With a given line, to
describe a circle upon a plane, from a given point"; and such a
proposition does not admit of proof, because the procedure, which it
requires, is exactly that by which alone it is possible to generate
the conception of such a figure. With the same right, accordingly, can
we postulate the principles of modality, because they do not
augment* the conception of a thing but merely indicate the manner in
which it is connected with the faculty of cognition.
*When I think the reality of a thing, I do really think more than
the possibility, but not in the thing; for that can never contain more
in reality than was contained in its complete possibility. But while
the notion of possibility is merely the notion of a position of
thing in relation to the understanding (its empirical use), reality is
the conjunction of the thing with perception.
GENERAL REMARK ON THE SYSTEM OF PRINCIPLES.
It is very remarkable that we cannot perceive the possibility of a
thing from the category alone, but must always have an intuition, by
which to make evident the objective reality of the pure conception
of the understanding. Take, for example, the categories of relation.
How (1) a thing can exist only as a subject, and not as a mere
determination of other things, that is, can be substance; or how
(2), because something exists, some other thing must exist,
consequently how a thing can be a cause; or how (3), when several
things exist, from the fact that one of these things exists, some
consequence to the others follows, and reciprocally, and in this way a
community of substances can be possible- are questions whose
solution cannot be obtained from mere conceptions. The very same is
the case with the other categories; for example, how a thing can be of
the same sort with many others, that is, can be a quantity, and so on.
So long as we have not intuition we cannot know whether we do really
think an object by the categories, and where an object can anywhere be
found to cohere with them, and thus the truth is established, that the
categories are not in themselves cognitions, but mere forms of thought
for the construction of cognitions from given intuitions. For the same
reason is it true that from categories alone no synthetical
proposition can be made. For example: "In every existence there is
substance," that is, something that can exist only as a subject and
not as mere predicate; or, "Everything is a quantity"- to construct
propositions such as these, we require something to enable us to go
out beyond the given conception and connect another with it. For the
same reason the attempt to prove a synthetical proposition by means of
mere conceptions, for example: "Everything that exists contingently
has a cause," has never succeeded. We could never get further than
proving that, without this relation to conceptions, we could not
conceive the existence of the contingent, that is, could not a
priori through the understanding cognize the existence of such a
thing; but it does not hence follow that this is also the condition of
the possibility of the thing itself that is said to be contingent. If,
accordingly; we look back to our proof of the principle of
causality, we shall find that we were able to prove it as valid only
of objects of possible experience, and, indeed, only as itself the
principle of the possibility of experience, Consequently of the
cognition of an object given in empirical intuition, and not from mere
conceptions. That, however, the proposition: "Everything that is
contingent must have a cause," is evident to every one merely from
conceptions, is not to be denied. But in this case the conception of
the contingent is cogitated as involving not the category of
modality (as that the non-existence of which can be conceive but
that of relation (as that which can exist only as the consequence of
something else), and so it is really an identical proposition: "That
which can exist only as a consequence, has a cause." In fact, when
we have to give examples of contingent existence, we always refer to
changes, and not merely to the possibility of conceiving the
opposite.* But change is an event, which, as such, is possible only
through a cause, and considered per se its non-existence is
therefore possible, and we become cognizant of its contingency from
the fact that it can exist only as the effect of a cause. Hence, if
a thing is assumed to be contingent, it is an analytical proposition
to say, it has a cause.
*We can easily conceive the non-existence of matter; but the
ancients did not thence infer its contingency. But even the
alternation of the existence and non-existence of a given state in a
thing, in which all change consists, by no means proves the
contingency of that state- the ground of proof being the reality of
its opposite. For example, a body is in a state of rest after
motion, but we cannot infer the contingency of the motion from the
fact that the former is the opposite of the latter. For this
opposite is merely a logical and not a real opposite to the other.
If we wish to demonstrate the contingency of the motion, what we ought
to prove is that, instead of the motion which took place in the
preceding point of time, it was possible for the body to have been
then in rest, not, that it is afterwards in rest; for in this case,
both opposites are perfectly consistent with each other.
But it is still more remarkable that, to understand the
possibility of things according to the categories and thus to
demonstrate the objective reality of the latter, we require not merely
intuitions, but external intuitions. If, for example, we take the pure
conceptions of relation, we find that (1) for the purpose of
presenting to the conception of substance something permanent in
intuition corresponding thereto and thus of demonstrating the
objective reality of this conception, we require an intuition (of
matter) in space, because space alone is permanent and determines
things as such, while time, and with it all that is in the internal
sense, is in a state of continual flow; (2) in order to represent
change as the intuition corresponding to the conception of
causality, we require the representation of motion as change in space;
in fact, it is through it alone that changes, the possibility of which
no pure understanding can perceive, are capable of being intuited.
Change is the connection of determinations contradictorily opposed
to each other in the existence of one and the same thing. Now, how
it is possible that out of a given state one quite opposite to it in
the same thing should follow, reason without an example can not only
not conceive, but cannot even make intelligible without intuition; and
this intuition is the motion of a point in space; the existence of
which in different spaces (as a consequence of opposite
determinations) alone makes the intuition of change possible. For,
in order to make even internal change cognitable, we require to
represent time, as the form of the internal sense, figuratively by a
line, and the internal change by the drawing of that line (motion),
and consequently are obliged to employ external intuition to be able
to represent the successive existence of ourselves in different
states. The proper ground of this fact is that all change to be
perceived as change presupposes something permanent in intuition,
while in the internal sense no permanent intuition is to be found.
Lastly, the objective possibility of the category of community
cannot be conceived by mere reason, and consequently its objective
reality cannot be demonstrated without an intuition, and that external
in space. For how can we conceive the possibility of community, that
is, when several substances exist, that some effect on the existence
of the one follows from the existence of the other, and
reciprocally, and therefore that, because something exists in the
latter, something else must exist in the former, which could not be
understood from its own existence alone? For this is the very
essence of community- which is inconceivable as a property of things
which are perfectly isolated. Hence, Leibnitz, in attributing to the
substances of the world- as cogitated by the understanding alone- a
community, required the mediating aid of a divinity; for, from their
existence, such a property seemed to him with justice inconceivable.
But we can very easily conceive the possibility of community (of
substances as phenomena) if we represent them to ourselves as in
space, consequently in external intuition. For external intuition
contains in itself a priori formal external relations, as the
conditions of the possibility of the real relations of action and
reaction, and therefore of the possibility of community. With the same
ease can it be demonstrated, that the possibility of things as
quantities, and consequently the objective reality of the category
of quantity, can be grounded only in external intuition, and that by
its means alone is the notion of quantity appropriated by the internal
sense. But I must avoid prolixity, and leave the task of
illustrating this by examples to the reader's own reflection.
The above remarks are of the greatest importance, not only for the
confirmation of our previous confutation of idealism, but still more
when the subject of self-cognition by mere internal consciousness
and the determination of our own nature without the aid of external
empirical intuitions is under discussion, for the indication of the
grounds of the possibility of such a cognition.
The result of the whole of this part of the analytic of principles
is, therefore: "All principles of the pure understanding are nothing
more than a priori principles of the possibility of experience, and to
experience alone do all a priori synthetical propositions apply and
relate"; indeed, their possibility itself rests entirely on this
relation.
--
※ 来源:·哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn·[FROM: riee2.hit.edu.cn]
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