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标 题: SECOND PART. TRANSCENDENTAL LOGIC.(28)
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APPENDIX.
Of the Regulative Employment of the Ideas of Pure Reason.
The result of all the dialectical attempts of pure reason not only confirm
s the truth of what we have already proved in our Transcendental Analytic, n
amely, that all inferences which would lead us beyond the limits of experien
ce are fallacious and groundless, but it at the same time teaches us this im
portant lesson, that human reason has a natural inclination to overstep thes
e limits, and that transcendental ideas are as much the natural property of
the reason as categories are of the understanding. There exists this differe
nce, however, that while the categories never mislead us, outward objects be
ing always in perfect harmony therewith, ideas are the parents of irresistib
le illusions, the severest and most subtle criticism being required to save
us from the fallacies which they induce.
Whatever is grounded in the nature of our powers will be found to be in ha
rmony with the final purpose and proper employment of these powers, when onc
e we have discovered their true direction and aim. We are entitled to suppos
e, therefore, that there exists a mode of employing transcendental ideas whi
ch is proper and immanent; although, when we mistake their meaning, and rega
rd them as conceptions of actual things, their mode of application is transc
endent and delusive. For it is not the idea itself, but only the employment
of the idea in relation to possible experience, that is transcendent or imma
nent. An idea is employed transcendently, when it is applied to an object fa
lsely believed to be adequate with and to correspond to it; imminently, when
it is applied solely to the employment of the understanding in the sphere o
f experience. Thus all errors of subreptio- of misapplication, are to be asc
ribed to defects of judgement, and not to understanding or reason.
Reason never has an immediate relation to an object; it relates immediatel
y to the understanding alone. It is only through the understanding that it c
an be employed in the field of experience. It does not form conceptions of o
bjects, it merely arranges them and gives to them that unity which they are
capable of possessing when the sphere of their application has been extended
as widely as possible. Reason avails itself of the conception of the unders
tanding for the sole purpose of producing totality in the different series.
This totality the understanding does not concern itself with; its only occup
ation is the connection of experiences, by which series of conditions in acc
ordance with conceptions are established. The object of reason is, therefore
, the understanding and its proper destination. As the latter brings unity i
nto the diversity of objects by means of its conceptions, so the former brin
gs unity into the diversity of conceptions by means of ideas; as it sets the
final aim of a collective unity to the operations of the understanding, whi
ch without this occupies itself with a distributive unity alone.
I accordingly maintain that transcendental ideas can never be employed as
constitutive ideas, that they cannot be conceptions of objects, and that, wh
en thus considered, they assume a fallacious and dialectical character. But,
on the other hand, they are capable of an admirable and indispensably neces
sary application to objects- as regulative ideas, directing the understandin
g to a certain aim, the guiding lines towards which all its laws follow, and
in which they all meet in one point. This point- though a mere idea (focus
imaginarius), that is, not a point from which the conceptions of the underst
anding do really proceed, for it lies beyond the sphere of possible experien
ce- serves, notwithstanding, to give to these conceptions the greatest possi
ble unity combined with the greatest possible extension. Hence arises the na
tural illusion which induces us to believe that these lines proceed from an
object which lies out of the sphere of empirical cognition, just as objects
reflected in a mirror appear to be behind it. But this illusion- which we ma
y hinder from imposing upon us- is necessary and unavoidable, if we desire t
o see, not only those objects which lie before us, but those which are at a
great distance behind us; that is to say, when, in the present case, we dire
ct the aims of the understanding, beyond every given experience, towards an
extension as great as can possibly be attained.
If we review our cognitions in their entire extent, we shall find that the
peculiar business of reason is to arrange them into a system, that is to sa
y, to give them connection according to a principle. This unity presupposes
an idea- the idea of the form of a whole (of cognition), preceding the deter
minate cognition of the parts, and containing the conditions which determine
a priori to every part its place and relation to the other parts of the who
le system. This idea, accordingly, demands complete unity in the cognition o
f the understanding- not the unity of a contingent aggregate, but that of a
system connected according to necessary laws. It cannot be affirmed with pro
priety that this idea is a conception of an object; it is merely a conceptio
n of the complete unity of the conceptions of objects, in so far as this uni
ty is available to the understanding as a rule. Such conceptions of reason a
re not derived from nature; on the contrary, we employ them for the interrog
ation and investigation of nature, and regard our cognition as defective so
long as it is not adequate to them. We admit that such a thing as pure earth
, pure water, or pure air, is not to be discovered. And yet we require these
conceptions (which have their origin in the reason, so far as regards their
absolute purity and completeness) for the purpose of determining the share
which each of these natural causes has in every phenomenon. Thus the differe
nt kinds of matter are all ref erred to earths, as mere weight; to salts and
inflammable bodies, as pure force; and finally, to water and air, as the ve
hicula of the former, or the machines employed by them in their operations-
for the purpose of explaining the chemical action and reaction of bodies in
accordance with the idea of a mechanism. For, although not actually so expre
ssed, the influence of such ideas of reason is very observable in the proced
ure of natural philosophers.
If reason is the faculty of deducing the particular from the general, and
if the general be certain in se and given, it is only necessary that the jud
gement should subsume the particular under the general, the particular being
thus necessarily determined. I shall term this the demonstrative or apodeic
tic employment of reason. If, however, the general is admitted as problemati
cal only, and is a mere idea, the particular case is certain, but the univer
sality of the rule which applies to this particular case remains a problem.
Several particular cases, the certainty of which is beyond doubt, are then t
aken and examined, for the purpose of discovering whether the rule is applic
able to them; and if it appears that all the particular cases which can be c
ollected follow from the rule, its universality is inferred, and at the same
time, all the causes which have not, or cannot be presented to our observat
ion, are concluded to be of the same character with those which we have obse
rved. This I shall term the hypothetical employment of the reason.
The hypothetical exercise of reason by the aid of ideas employed as proble
matical conceptions is properly not constitutive. That is to say, if we cons
ider the subject strictly, the truth of the rule, which has been employed as
an hypothesis, does not follow from the use that is made of it by reason. F
or how can we know all the possible cases that may arise? some of which may,
however, prove exceptions to the universality of the rule. This employment
of reason is merely regulative, and its sole aim is the introduction of unit
y into the aggregate of our particular cognitions, and thereby the approxima
ting of the rule to universality.
The object of the hypothetical employment of reason is therefore the syste
matic unity of cognitions; and this unity is the criterion of the truth of a
rule. On the other hand, this systematic unity- as a mere idea- is in fact
merely a unity projected, not to be regarded as given, but only in the light
of a problem- a problem which serves, however, as a principle for the vario
us and particular exercise of the understanding in experience, directs it wi
th regard to those cases which are not presented to our observation, and int
roduces harmony and consistency into all its operations.
All that we can be certain of from the above considerations is that this s
ystematic unity is a logical principle, whose aim is to assist the understan
ding, where it cannot of itself attain to rules, by means of ideas, to bring
all these various rules under one principle, and thus to ensure the most co
mplete consistency and connection that can be attained. But the assertion th
at objects and the understanding by which they are cognized are so constitut
ed as to be determined to systematic unity, that this may be postulated a pr
iori, without any reference to the interest of reason, and that we are justi
fied in declaring all possible cognitions- empirical and others- to possess
systematic unity, and to be subject to general principles from which, notwit
hstanding their various character, they are all derivable such an assertion
can be founded only upon a transcendental principle of reason, which would r
ender this systematic unity not subjectively and logically- in its character
of a method, but objectively necessary.
We shall illustrate this by an example. The conceptions of the understandi
ng make us acquainted, among many other kinds of unity, with that of the cau
sality of a substance, which is termed power. The different phenomenal manif
estations of the same substance appear at first view to be so very dissimila
r that we are inclined to assume the existence of just as many different pow
ers as there are different effects- as, in the case of the human mind, we ha
ve feeling, consciousness, imagination, memory, wit, analysis, pleasure, des
ire and so on. Now we are required by a logical maxim to reduce these differ
ences to as small a number as possible, by comparing them and discovering th
e hidden identity which exists. We must inquire, for example, whether or not
imagination (connected with consciousness), memory, wit, and analysis are n
ot merely different forms of understanding and reason. The idea of a fundame
ntal power, the existence of which no effort of logic can assure us of, is t
he problem to be solved, for the systematic representation of the existing v
ariety of powers. The logical principle of reason requires us to produce as
great a unity as is possible in the system of our cognitions; and the more t
he phenomena of this and the other power are found to be identical, the more
probable does it become, that they are nothing but different manifestations
of one and the same power, which may be called, relatively speaking, a fund
amental power. And so with other cases.
These relatively fundamental powers must again be compared with each other
, to discover, if possible, the one radical and absolutely fundamental power
of which they are but the manifestations. But this unity is purely hypothet
ical. It is not maintained, that this unity does really exist, but that we m
ust, in the interest of reason, that is, for the establishment of principles
for the various rules presented by experience, try to discover and introduc
e it, so far as is practicable, into the sphere of our cognitions.
But the transcendental employment of the understanding would lead us to be
lieve that this idea of a fundamental power is not problematical, but that i
t possesses objective reality, and thus the systematic unity of the various
powers or forces in a substance is demanded by the understanding and erected
into an apodeictic or necessary principle. For, without having attempted to
discover the unity of the various powers existing in nature, nay, even afte
r all our attempts have failed, we notwithstanding presuppose that it does e
xist, and may be, sooner or later, discovered. And this reason does, not onl
y, as in the case above adduced, with regard to the unity of substance, but
where many substances, although all to a certain extent homogeneous, are dis
coverable, as in the case of matter in general. Here also does reason presup
pose the existence of the systematic unity of various powers- inasmuch as pa
rticular laws of nature are subordinate to general laws; and parsimony in pr
inciples is not merely an economical principle of reason, but an essential l
aw of nature.
We cannot understand, in fact, how a logical principle of unity can of rig
ht exist, unless we presuppose a transcendental principle, by which such a s
ystematic unit- as a property of objects themselves- is regarded as necessar
y a priori. For with what right can reason, in its logical exercise, require
us to regard the variety of forces which nature displays, as in effect a di
sguised unity, and to deduce them from one fundamental force or power, when
she is free to admit that it is just as possible that all forces should be d
ifferent in kind, and that a systematic unity is not conformable to the desi
gn of nature? In this view of the case, reason would be proceeding in direct
opposition to her own destination, by setting as an aim an idea which entir
ely conflicts with the procedure and arrangement of nature. Neither can we a
ssert that reason has previously inferred this unity from the contingent nat
ure of phenomena. For the law of reason which requires us to seek for this u
nity is a necessary law, inasmuch as without it we should not possess a facu
lty of reason, nor without reason a consistent and self-accordant mode of em
ploying the understanding, nor, in the absence of this, any proper and suffi
cient criterion of empirical truth. In relation to this criterion, therefore
, we must suppose the idea of the systematic unity of nature to possess obje
ctive validity and necessity.
We find this transcendental presupposition lurking in different forms in t
he principles of philosophers, although they have neither recognized it nor
confessed to themselves its presence. That the diversities of individual thi
ngs do not exclude identity of species, that the various species must be con
sidered as merely different determinations of a few genera, and these again
as divisions of still higher races, and so on- that, accordingly, a certain
systematic unity of all possible empirical conceptions, in so far as they ca
n be deduced from higher and more general conceptions, must be sought for, i
s a scholastic maxim or logical principle, without which reason could not be
employed by us. For we can infer the particular from the general, only in s
o far as general properties of things constitute the foundation upon which t
he particular rest.
That the same unity exists in nature is presupposed by philosophers in the
well-known scholastic maxim, which forbids us unnecessarily to augment the
number of entities or principles (entia praeter necessitatem non esse multip
licanda). This maxim asserts that nature herself assists in the establishmen
t of this unity of reason, and that the seemingly infinite diversity of phen
omena should not deter us from the expectation of discovering beneath this d
iversity a unity of fundamental properties, of which the aforesaid variety i
s but a more or less determined form. This unity, although a mere idea, thin
kers have found it necessary rather to moderate the desire than to encourage
it. It was considered a great step when chemists were able to reduce all sa
lts to two main genera- acids and alkalis; and they regard this difference a
s itself a mere variety, or different manifestation of one and the same fund
amental material. The different kinds of earths (stones and even metals) che
mists have endeavoured to reduce to three, and afterwards to two; but still,
not content with this advance, they cannot but think that behind these dive
rsities there lurks but one genus- nay, that even salts and earths have a co
mmon principle. It might be conjectured that this is merely an economical pl
an of reason, for the purpose of sparing itself trouble, and an attempt of a
purely hypothetical character, which, when successful, gives an appearance
of probability to the principle of explanation employed by the reason. But a
selfish purpose of this kind is easily to be distinguished from the idea, a
ccording to which
every one presupposes that this unity is in accordance with the laws of natu
re, and that reason does not in this case request, but requires, although we
are quite unable to determine the proper limits of this unity.
If the diversity existing in phenomena- a diversity not of form (for in th
is they may be similar) but of content- were so great that the subtlest huma
n reason could never by comparison discover in them the least similarity (wh
ich is not impossible), in this case the logical law of genera would be with
out foundation, the conception of a genus, nay, all general conceptions woul
d be impossible, and the faculty of the understanding, the exercise of which
is restricted to the world of conceptions, could not exist. The logical pri
nciple of genera, accordingly, if it is to be applied to nature (by which I
mean objects presented to our senses), presupposes a transcendental principl
e. In accordance with this principle, homogeneity is necessarily presupposed
in the variety of phenomena (although we are unable to determine a priori t
he degree of this homogeneity), because without it no empirical conceptions,
and consequently no experience, would be possible.
The logical principle of genera, which demands identity in phenomena, is b
alanced by another principle- that of species, which requires variety and di
versity in things, notwithstanding their accordance in the same genus, and d
irects the understanding to attend to the one no less than to the other. Thi
s principle (of the faculty of distinction) acts as a check upon the reason
and reason exhibits in this respect a double and conflicting interest- on th
e one hand, the interest in the extent (the interest of generality) in relat
ion to genera; on the other, that of the content (the interest of individual
ity) in relation to the variety of species. In the former case, the understa
nding cogitates more under its conceptions, in the latter it cogitates more
in them. This distinction manifests itself likewise in the habits of thought
peculiar to natural philosophers, some of whom- the remarkably speculative
heads- may be said to be hostile to heterogeneity in phenomena, and have the
ir eyes always fixed on the unity of genera, while others- with a strong emp
irical tendency- aim unceasingly at the analysis of phenomena, and almost de
stroy in us the hope of ever being able to estimate the character of these a
ccording to general principles.
The latter mode of thought is evidently based upon a logical principle, th
e aim of which is the systematic completeness of all cognitions. This princi
ple authorizes me, beginning at the genus, to descend to the various and div
erse contained under it; and in this way extension, as in the former case un
ity, is assured to the system. For if we merely examine the sphere of the co
nception which indicates a genus, we cannot discover how far it is possible
to proceed in the division of that sphere; just as it is impossible, from th
e consideration of the space occupied by matter, to determine how far we can
proceed in the division of it. Hence every genus must contain different spe
cies, and these again different subspecies; and as each of the latter must i
tself contain a sphere (must be of a certain extent, as a conceptus communis
), reason demands that no species or sub-species is to be considered as the
lowest possible. For a species or sub-species, being always a conception, wh
ich contains only what is common to a number of different things, does not c
ompletely determine any individual thing, or relate immediately to it, and m
ust consequently contain other conceptions, that is, other sub-species under
it. This law of specification may be thus expressed: entium varietates non
temere sunt minuendae.
But it is easy to see that this logical law would likewise be without sens
e or application, were it not based upon a transcendental law of specificati
on, which certainly does not require that the differences existing phenomena
should be infinite in number, for the logical principle, which merely maint
ains the indeterminateness of the logical sphere of a conception, in relatio
n to its possible division, does not authorize this statement; while it does
impose upon the understanding the duty of searching for subspecies to every
species, and minor differences in every difference. For, were there no lowe
r conceptions, neither could there be any higher. Now the understanding cogn
izes only by means of conceptions; consequently, how far soever it may proce
ed in division, never by mere intuition, but always by lower and lower conce
ptions. The cognition of phenomena in their complete determination (which is
possible only by means of the understanding) requires an unceasingly contin
ued specification of conceptions, and a progression to ever smaller differen
ces, of which abstraction bad been made in the conception of the species, an
d still more in that of the genus.
This law of specification cannot be deduced from experience; it can never
present us with a principle of so universal an application. Empirical specif
ication very soon stops in its distinction of diversities, and requires the
guidance of the transcendental law, as a principle of the reason- a law whic
h imposes on us the necessity of never ceasing in our search for differences
, even although these may not present themselves to the senses. That absorbe
nt earths are of different kinds could only be discovered by obeying the ant
icipatory law of reason, which imposes upon the understanding the task of di
scovering the differences existing between these earths, and supposes that n
ature is richer in substances than our senses would indicate. The faculty of
the understanding belongs to us just as much under the presupposition of di
fferences in the objects of nature, as under the condition that these object
s are homogeneous, because we could not possess conceptions, nor make any us
e of our understanding, were not the phenomena included under these concepti
ons in some respects dissimilar, as well as similar, in their character. R
eason thus prepares the sphere of the understanding for the operations of th
is faculty: 1. By the principle of the homogeneity of the diverse in higher
genera; 2. By the principle of the variety of the homogeneous in lower speci
es; and, to complete the systematic unity, it adds, 3. A law of the affinity
of all conceptions which prescribes a continuous transition from one specie
s to every other by the gradual increase of diversity. We may term these the
principles of the homogeneity, the specification, and the continuity of for
ms. The latter results from the union of the two former, inasmuch as we rega
rd the systematic connection as complete in thought, in the ascent to higher
genera, as well as in the descent to lower species. For all diversities mus
t be related to each other, as they all spring from one highest genus, desce
nding through the different gradations of a more and more extended determina
tion.
We may illustrate the systematic unity produced by the three logical princ
iples in the following manner. Every conception may be regarded as a point,
which, as the standpoint of a spectator, has a certain horizon, which may be
said to enclose a number of things that may be viewed, so to speak, from th
at centre. Within this horizon there must be an infinite number of other poi
nts, each of which has its own horizon, smaller and more circumscribed; in o
ther words, every species contains sub-species, according to the principle o
f specification, and the logical horizon consists of smaller horizons (subsp
ecies), but not of points (individuals), which possess no extent. But differ
ent horizons or genera, which include under them so many conceptions, may ha
ve one common horizon, from which, as from a mid-point, they may be surveyed
; and we may proceed thus, till we arrive at the highest genus, or universal
and true horizon, which is determined by the highest conception, and which
contains under itself all differences and varieties, as genera, species, and
subspecies.
To this highest standpoint I am conducted by the law of homogeneity, as to
all lower and more variously-determined conceptions by the law of specifica
tion. Now as in this way there exists no void in the whole extent of all pos
sible conceptions, and as out of the sphere of these the mind can discover n
othing, there arises from the presupposition of the universal horizon above
mentioned, and its complete division, the principle: Non datur vacuum formar
um. This principle asserts that there are not different primitive and highes
t genera, which stand isolated, so to speak, from each other, but all the va
rious genera are mere divisions and limitations of one highest and universal
genus; and hence follows immediately the principle: Datur continuum formaru
m. This principle indicates that all differences of species limit each other
, and do not admit of transition from one to another by a saltus, but only t
hrough smaller degrees of the difference between the one species and the oth
er. In one word, there are no species or sub-species which (in the view of r
eason) are the nearest possible to each other; intermediate species or sub-s
pecies being always possible, the difference of which from each of the forme
r is always smaller than the difference existing between these.
The first law, therefore, directs us to avoid the notion that there exist
different primal genera, and enounces the fact of perfect homogeneity; the s
econd imposes a check upon this tendency to unity and prescribes the distinc
tion of sub-species, before proceeding to apply our general conceptions to i
ndividuals. The third unites both the former, by enouncing the fact of homog
eneity as existing even in the most various diversity, by means of the gradu
al transition from one species to another. Thus it indicates a relationship
between the different branches or species, in so far as they all spring from
the same stem.
But this logical law of the continuum specierum (formarum logicarum) presu
pposes a transcendental principle (lex continui in natura), without which th
e understanding might be led into error, by following the guidance of the fo
rmer, and thus perhaps pursuing a path contrary to that prescribed by nature
. This law must, consequently, be based upon pure transcendental, and not up
on empirical, considerations. For, in the latter case, it would come later t
han the system; whereas it is really itself the parent of all that is system
atic in our cognition of nature. These principles are not mere hypotheses em
ployed for the purpose of experimenting upon nature; although when any such
connection is discovered, it forms a solid ground for regarding the hypothet
ical unity as valid in the sphere of nature- and thus they are in this respe
ct not without their use. But we go farther, and maintain that it is manifes
t that these principles of parsimony in fundamental causes, variety in effec
ts, and affinity in phenomena, are in accordance both with reason and nature
, and that they are not mere methods or plans devised for the purpose of ass
isting us in our observation of the external world.
But it is plain that this continuity of forms is a mere idea, to which no
adequate object can be discovered in experience. And this for two reasons. F
irst, because the species in nature are really divided, and hence form quant
a discreta; and, if the gradual progression through their affinity were cont
inuous, the intermediate members lying between two given species must be inf
inite in number, which is impossible. Secondly, because we cannot make any d
eterminate empirical use of this law, inasmuch as it does not present us wit
h any criterion of affinity which could aid us in determining how far we oug
ht to pursue the graduation of differences: it merely contains a general ind
ication that it is our duty to seek for and, if possible, to discover them.
When we arrange these principles of systematic unity in the order conforma
ble to their employment in experience, they will stand thus: Variety, Affini
ty, Unity, each of them, as ideas, being taken in the highest degree of thei
r completeness. Reason presupposes the existence of cognitions of the unders
tanding, which have a direct relation to experience, and aims at the ideal u
nity of these cognitions- a unity which far transcends all experience or emp
irical notions. The affinity of the diverse, notwithstanding the differences
existing between its parts, has a relation to things, but a still closer on
e to the mere properties and powers of things. For example, imperfect experi
ence may represent the orbits of the planets as circular. But we discover va
riations from this course, and we proceed to suppose that the planets revolv
e in a path which, if not a circle, is of a character very similar to it. Th
at is to say, the movements of those planets which do not form a circle will
approximate more or less to the properties of a circle, and probably form a
n ellipse. The paths of comets exhibit still greater variations, for, so far
as our observation extends, they do not return upon their own course in a c
ircle or ellipse. But we proceed to the conjecture that comets describe a pa
rabola, a figure which is closely allied to the ellipse. In fact, a parabola
is merely an ellipse, with its longer axis produced to an indefinite extent
. Thus these principles conduct us to a unity in the genera of the forms of
these orbits, and, proceeding farther, to a unity as regards the cause of th
e motions of the heavenly bodies- that is, gravitation. But we go on extendi
ng our conquests over nature, and endeavour to explain all seeming deviation
s from these rules, and even make additions to our system which no experienc
e can ever substantiate- for example, the theory, in affinity with that of e
llipses, of hyperbolic paths of comets, pursuing which, these bodies leave o
ur solar system and, passing from sun to sun, unite the most distant parts o
f the infinite universe, which is held together by the same moving power.
The most remarkable circumstance connected with these principles is that t
hey seem to be transcendental, and, although only containing ideas for the g
uidance of the empirical exercise of reason, and although this empirical emp
loyment stands to these ideas in an asymptotic relation alone (to use a math
ematical term), that is, continually approximate, without ever being able to
attain to them, they possess, notwithstanding, as a priori synthetical prop
ositions, objective though undetermined validity, and are available as rules
for possible experience. In the elaboration of our experience, they may als
o be employed with great advantage, as heuristic* principles. A transcendent
al deduction of them cannot be made; such a deduction being always impossibl
e in the case of ideas, as has been already shown.
*From the Greek, eurhioko.
We distinguished, in the Transcendental Analytic, the dynamical principles
of the understanding, which are regulative principles of intuition, from th
e mathematical, which are constitutive principles of intuition. These dynami
cal laws are, however, constitutive in relation to experience, inasmuch as t
hey render the conceptions without which experience could not exist possible
a priori. But the principles of pure reason cannot be constitutive even in
regard to empirical conceptions, because no sensuous schema corresponding to
them can be discovered, and they cannot therefore have an object in concret
o. Now, if I grant that they cannot be employed in the sphere of experience,
as constitutive principles, how shall I secure for them employment and obje
ctive validity as regulative principles, and in what way can they be so empl
oyed?
The understanding is the object of reason, as sensibility is the object of
the understanding. The production of systematic unity in all the empirical
operations of the understanding is the proper occupation of reason; just as
it is the business of the understanding to connect the various content of ph
enomena by means of conceptions, and subject them to empirical laws. But the
operations of the understanding are, without the schemata of sensibility, u
ndetermined; and, in the same manner, the unity of reason is perfectly undet
ermined as regards the conditions under which, and the extent to which, the
understanding ought to carry the systematic connection of its conceptions. B
ut, although it is impossible to discover in intuition a schema for the comp
lete systematic unity of all the conceptions of the understanding, there mus
t be some analogon of this schema. This analogon is the idea of the maximum
of the division and the connection of our cognition in one principle. For we
may have a determinate notion of a maximum and an absolutely perfect, all t
he restrictive conditions which are connected with an indeterminate and vari
ous content having been abstracted. Thus the idea of reason is analogous wit
h a sensuous schema, with this difference, that the application of the categ
ories to the schema of reason does not present a cognition of any object (as
is the case with the application of the categories to sensuous schemata), b
ut merely provides us with a rule or principle for the systematic unity of t
he exercise of the understanding. Now, as every principle which imposes upon
the exercise of the understanding a priori compliance with the rule of syst
ematic unity also relates, although only in an indirect manner, to an object
of experience, the principles of pure reason will also possess objective re
ality and validity in relation to experience. But they will not aim at deter
mining our knowledge in regard to any empirical object; they will merely ind
icate the procedure, following which the empirical and determinate exercise
of the understanding may be in complete harmony and connection with itself-
a result which is produced by its being brought into harmony with the princi
ple of systematic unity, so far as that is possible, and deduced from it.
I term all subjective principles, which are not derived from observation o
f the constitution of an object, but from the interest which Reason has in p
roducing a certain completeness in her cognition of that object, maxims of r
eason. Thus there are maxims of speculative reason, which are based solely u
pon its speculative interest, although they appear to be objective principle
s.
When principles which are really regulative are regarded as constitutive,
and employed as objective principles, contradictions must arise; but if they
are considered as mere maxims, there is no room for contradictions of any k
ind, as they then merely indicate the different interests of reason, which o
ccasion differences in the mode of thought. In effect, Reason has only one s
ingle interest, and the seeming contradiction existing between her maxims me
rely indicates a difference in, and a reciprocal limitation of, the methods
by
which this interest is satisfied.
This reasoner has at heart the interest of diversity- in accordance with t
he principle of specification; another, the interest of unity- in accordance
with the principle of aggregation. Each believes that his judgement rests u
pon a thorough insight into the subject he is examining, and yet it has been
influenced solely by a greater or less degree of adherence to some one of t
he two principles, neither of which are objective, but originate solely from
the interest of reason, and on this account to be termed maxims rather than
principles. When I observe intelligent men disputing about the distinctive
characteristics of men, animals, or plants, and even of minerals, those on t
he one side assuming the existence of certain national characteristics, cert
ain well-defined and hereditary distinctions of family, race, and so on, whi
le the other side maintain that nature has endowed all races of men with the
same faculties and dispositions, and that all differences are but the resul
t of external and accidental circumstances- I have only to consider for a mo
ment the real nature of the subject of discussion, to arrive at the conclusi
on that it is a subject far too deep for us to judge of, and that there is l
ittle probability of either party being able to speak from a perfect insight
into and understanding of the nature of the subject itself. Both have, in r
eality, been struggling for the twofold interest of reason; the one maintain
ing the one interest, the other the other. But this difference between the m
axims of diversity and unity may easily be reconciled and adjusted; although
, so long as they are regarded as objective principles, they must occasion n
ot only contradictions and polemic, but place hinderances in the way of the
advancement of truth, until some means is discovered of reconciling these co
nflicting interests, and bringing reason into union and harmony with itself.
The same is the case with the so-called law discovered by Leibnitz, and su
pported with remarkable ability by Bonnet- the law of the continuous gradati
on of created beings, which is nothing more than an inference from the princ
iple of affinity; for observation and study of the order of nature could nev
er present it to the mind as an objective truth. The steps of this ladder, a
s they appear in experience, are too far apart from each other, and the so-c
alled petty differences between different kinds of animals are in nature com
monly so wide separations that no confidence can be placed in such views (pa
rticularly when we reflect on the great variety of things, and the ease with
which we can discover resemblances), and no faith in the laws which are sai
d to express the aims and purposes of nature. On the other hand, the method
of investigating the order of nature in the light of this principle, and the
maxim which requires us to regard this order- it being still undetermined h
ow far it extends- as really existing in nature, is beyond doubt a legitimat
e and excellent principle of reason- a principle which extends farther than
any experience or observation of ours and which, without giving us any posit
ive knowledge of anything in the region of experience, guides us to the goal
of systematic unity.
--
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