Philosophy 版 (精华区)
发信人: songs (今夜有丁香雨), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: SECOND PART. TRANSCENDENTAL LOGIC.(29)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年06月28日10:44:14 星期四), 站内信件
Of the Ultimate End of the Natural Dialectic of Human Reason.
The ideas of pure reason cannot be, of themselves and in their own nature,
dialectical; it is from their misemployment alone that fallacies and illusi
ons arise. For they originate in the nature of reason itself, and it is impo
ssible that this supreme tribunal for all the rights and claims of speculati
on should be itself undeserving of confidence and promotive of error. It is
to be expected, therefore, that these ideas have a genuine and legitimate ai
m. It is true, the mob of sophists raise against reason the cry of inconsist
ency and contradiction, and affect to despise the government of that faculty
, because they cannot understand its constitution, while it is to its benefi
cial influences alone that they owe the position and the intelligence which
enable them to criticize and to blame its procedure.
We cannot employ an a priori conception with certainty, until we have made
a transcendental deduction therefore. The ideas of pure reason do not admit
of the same kind of deduction as the categories. But if they are to possess
the least objective validity, and to represent anything but mere creations
of thought (entia rationis ratiocinantis), a deduction of them must be possi
ble. This deduction will complete the critical task imposed upon pure reason
; and it is to this part Of our labours that we now proceed.
There is a great difference between a thing's being presented to the mind
as an object in an absolute sense, or merely as an ideal object. In the form
er case I employ my conceptions to determine the object; in the latter case
nothing is present to the mind but a mere schema, which does not relate dire
ctly to an object, not even in a hypothetical sense, but which is useful onl
y for the purpose of representing other objects to the mind, in a mediate an
d indirect manner, by means of their relation to the idea in the intellect.
Thus I say the conception of a supreme intelligence is a mere idea; that is
to say, its objective reality does not consist in the fact that it has an im
mediate relation to an object (for in this sense we have no means of establi
shing its objective validity), it is merely a schema constructed according t
o the necessary conditions of the unity of reason- the schema of a thing in
general, which is useful towards the production of the highest degree of sys
tematic unity in the empirical exercise of reason, in which we deduce this o
r that object of experience from the imaginary object of this idea, as the g
round or cause of the said object of experience. In this way, the idea is pr
operly a heuristic, and not an ostensive, conception; it does not give us an
y information respecting the constitution of an object, it merely indicates
how, under the guidance of the idea, we ought to investigate the constitutio
n and the relations of objects in the world of experience. Now, if it can be
shown that the three kinds of transcendental ideas (psychological, cosmolog
ical, and theological), although not relating directly to any object nor det
ermining it, do nevertheless, on the supposition of the existence of an idea
l object, produce systematic unity in the laws of the empirical employment o
f the reason, and extend our empirical cognition, without ever being inconsi
stent or in opposition with it- it must be a necessary maxim of reason to re
gulate its procedure according to these ideas. And this forms the transcende
ntal deduction of all speculative ideas, not as constitutive principles of t
he extension of our cognition beyond the limits of our experience, but as re
gulative principles of the systematic unity of empirical cognition, which is
by the aid of these ideas arranged and emended within its own proper limits
, to an extent unattainable by the operation of the principles of the unders
tanding alone.
I shall make this plainer. Guided by the principles involved in these idea
s, we must, in the first place, so connect all the phenomena, actions, and f
eelings of the mind, as if it were a simple substance, which, endowed with p
ersonal identity, possesses a permanent existence (in this life at least), w
hile its states, among which those of the body are to be included as externa
l conditions, are in continual change. Secondly, in cosmology, we must inves
tigate the conditions of all natural phenomena, internal as well as external
, as if they belonged to a chain infinite and without any prime or supreme m
ember, while we do not, on this account, deny the existence of intelligible
grounds of these phenomena, although we never employ them to explain phenome
na, for the simple reason that they are not objects of our cognition. Thirdl
y, in the sphere of theology, we must regard the whole system of possible ex
perience as forming an absolute, but dependent and sensuously-conditioned un
ity, and at the same time as based upon a sole, supreme, and all-sufficient
ground existing apart from the world itself- a ground which is a self-subsis
tent, primeval and creative reason, in relation to which we so employ our re
ason in the field of experience, as if all objects drew their origin from th
at archetype of all reason. In other words, we ought not to deduce the inter
nal phenomena of the mind from a simple thinking substance, but deduce them
from each other under the guidance of the regulative idea of a simple being;
we ought not to deduce the phenomena, order, and unity of the universe from
a supreme intelligence, but merely draw from this idea of a supremely wise
cause the rules which must guide reason in its connection of causes and effe
cts.
Now there is nothing to hinder us from admitting these ideas to possess an
objective and hyperbolic existence, except the cosmological ideas, which le
ad reason into an antinomy: the psychological and theological ideas are not
antinomial. They contain no contradiction; and how, then, can any one disput
e their objective reality, since he who denies it knows as little about thei
r possibility as we who affirm? And yet, when we wish to admit the existence
of a thing, it is not sufficient to convince ourselves that there is no pos
itive obstacle in the way; for it cannot be allowable to regard mere creatio
ns of thought, which transcend, though they do not contradict, all our conce
ptions, as real and determinate objects, solely upon the authority of a spec
ulative reason striving to compass its own aims. They cannot, therefore, be
admitted to be real in themselves; they can only possess a comparative reali
ty- that of a schema of the regulative principle of the systematic unity of
all cognition. They are to be regarded not as actual things, but as in some
measure analogous to them. We abstract from the object of the idea all the c
onditions which limit the exercise of our understanding, but which, on the o
ther hand, are the sole conditions of our possessing a determinate conceptio
n of any given thing. And thus we cogitate a something, of the real nature o
f which we have not the least conception, but which we represent to ourselve
s as standing in a relation to the whole system of phenomena, analogous to t
hat in which phenomena stand to each other.
By admitting these ideal beings, we do not really extend our cognitions be
yond the objects of possible experience; we extend merely the empirical unit
y of our experience, by the aid of systematic unity, the schema of which is
furnished by the idea, which is therefore valid- not as a constitutive, but
as a regulative principle. For although we posit a thing corresponding to th
e idea- a something, an actual existence- we do not on that account aim at t
he extension of our cognition by means of transcendent conceptions. This exi
stence is purely ideal, and not objective; it is the mere expression of the
systematic unity which is to be the guide of reason in the field of experien
ce. There are no attempts made at deciding what the ground of this unity may
be, or what the real nature of this imaginary being.
Thus the transcendental and only determinate conception of God, which is p
resented to us by speculative reason, is in the strictest sense deistic. In
other words, reason does not assure us of the objective validity of the conc
eption; it merely gives us the idea of something, on which the supreme and n
ecessary unity of all experience is based. This something we cannot, followi
ng the analogy of a real substance, cogitate otherwise than as the cause of
all things operating in accordance with rational laws, if we regard it as an
individual object; although we should rest contented with the idea alone as
a regulative principle of reason, and make no attempt at completing the sum
of the conditions imposed by thought. This attempt is, indeed, inconsistent
with the grand aim of complete systematic unity in the sphere of cognition-
a unity to which no bounds are set by reason.
Hence it happens that, admitting a divine being, I can have no conception
of the internal possibility of its perfection, or of the necessity of its ex
istence. The only advantage of this admission is that it enables me to answe
r all other questions relating to the contingent, and to give reason the mos
t complete satisfaction as regards the unity which it aims at attaining in t
he world of experience. But I cannot satisfy reason with regard to this hypo
thesis itself; and this proves that it is not its intelligence and insight i
nto the subject, but its speculative interest alone which induces it to proc
eed from a point lying far beyond the sphere of our cognition, for the purpo
se of being able to consider all objects as parts of a systematic whole.
Here a distinction presents itself, in regard to the way in which we may c
ogitate a presupposition- a distinction which is somewhat subtle, but of gre
at importance in transcendental philosophy. I may have sufficient grounds to
admit something, or the existence of something, in a relative point of view
(suppositio relativa), without being justified in admitting it in an absolu
te sense (suppositio absoluta). This distinction is undoubtedly requisite, i
n the case of a regulative principle, the necessity of which we recognize, t
hough we are ignorant of the source and cause of that necessity, and which w
e assume to be based upon some ultimate ground, for the purpose of being abl
e to cogitate the universality of the principle in a more determinate way. F
or example, I cogitate the existence of a being corresponding to a pure tran
scendental idea. But I cannot admit that this being exists absolutely and in
itself, because all of the conceptions by which I can cogitate an object in
a determinate manner fall short of assuring me of its existence; nay, the c
onditions of the objective validity of my conceptions are excluded by the id
ea- by the very fact of its being an idea. The conceptions of reality, subst
ance, causality, nay, even that of necessity in existence, have no significa
nce out of the sphere of empirical cognition, and cannot, beyond that sphere
, determine any object. They may, accordingly, be employed to explain the po
ssibility of things in the world of sense, but they are utterly inadequate t
o explain the possibility of the universe itself considered as a whole; beca
use in this case the ground of explanation must lie out of and beyond the wo
rld, and cannot, therefore, be an object of possible experience. Now, I may
admit the existence of an incomprehensible being of this nature- the object
of a mere idea, relatively to the world of sense; although I have no ground
to admit its existence absolutely and in itself. For if an idea (that of a s
ystematic and complete unity, of which I shall presently speak more particul
arly) lies at the foundation of the most extended empirical employment of re
ason, and if this idea cannot be adequately represented in concreto, althoug
h it is indispensably necessary for the approximation of empirical unity to
the highest possible degree- I am not only authorized, but compelled, to rea
lize this idea, that is, to posit a real object corresponding thereto. But I
cannot profess to know this object; it is to me merely a something, to whic
h, as the ground of systematic unity in cognition, I attribute such properti
es as are analogous to the conceptions employed by the understanding in the
sphere of experience. Following the analogy of the notions of reality, subst
ance, causality, and necessity, I cogitate a being, which possesses all thes
e attributes in the highest degree; and, as this idea is the offspring of my
reason alone, I cogitate this being as self-subsistent reason, and as the c
ause of the universe operating by means of ideas of the greatest possible ha
rmony and unity. Thus I abstract all conditions that would limit my idea, so
lely for the purpose of rendering systematic unity possible in the world of
empirical diversity, and thus securing the widest possible extension for the
exercise of reason in that sphere. This I am enabled to do, by regarding al
l connections and relations in the world of sense, as if they were the dispo
sitions of a supreme reason, of which our reason is but a faint image. I the
n proceed to cogitate this Supreme Being by conceptions which have, properly
, no meaning or application, except in the world of sense. But as I am autho
rized to employ the transcendental hypothesis of such a being in a relative
respect alone, that is, as the substratum of the greatest possible unity in
experience- I may attribute to a being which I regard as distinct from the w
orld, such properties as belong solely to the sphere of sense and experience
. For I do not desire, and am not justified in desiring, to cognize this obj
ect of my idea, as it exists in itself; for I possess no conceptions suffici
ent for or task, those of reality, substance, causality, nay, even that of n
ecessity in existence, losing all significance, and becoming merely the sign
s of conceptions, without content and without applicability, when I attempt
to carry them beyond the limits of the world of sense. I cogitate merely the
relation of a perfectly unknown being to the greatest possible systematic u
nity of experience, solely for the purpose of employing it as the schema of
the regulative principle which directs reason in its empirical exercise.
It is evident, at the first view, that we cannot presuppose the reality of
this transcendental object, by means of the conceptions of reality, substan
ce, causality, and so on, because these conceptions cannot be applied to any
thing that is distinct from the world of sense. Thus the supposition of a Su
preme Being or cause is purely relative; it is cogitated only in behalf of t
he systematic unity of experience; such a being is but a something, of whose
existence in itself we have not the least conception. Thus, too, it becomes
sufficiently manifest why we required the idea of a necessary being in rela
tion to objects given by sense, although we can never have the least concept
ion of this being, or of its absolute necessity.
And now we can clearly perceive the result of our transcendental dialectic
, and the proper aim of the ideas of pure reason- which become dialectical s
olely from misunderstanding and inconsiderateness. Pure reason is, in fact,
occupied with itself, and not with any object. Objects are not presented to
it to be embraced in the unity of an empirical conception; it is only the co
gnitions of the understanding that are presented to it, for the purpose of r
eceiving the unity of a rational conception, that is, of being connected acc
ording to a principle. The unity of reason is the unity of system; and this
systematic unity is not an objective principle, extending its dominion over
objects, but a subjective maxim, extending its authority over the empirical
cognition of objects. The systematic connection which reason gives to the em
pirical employment of the understanding not only advances the extension of t
hat employment, but ensures its correctness, and thus the principle of a sys
tematic unity of this nature is also objective, although only in an indefini
te respect (principium vagum). It is not, however, a constitutive principle,
determining an object to which it directly relates; it is merely a regulati
ve principle or maxim, advancing and strengthening the empirical exercise of
reason, by the opening up of new paths of which the understanding is ignora
nt, while it never conflicts with the laws of its exercise in the sphere of
experience.
But reason cannot cogitate this systematic unity, without at the same time
cogitating an object of the idea- an object that cannot be presented in any
experience, which contains no concrete example of a complete systematic uni
ty. This being (ens rationis ratiocinatae) is therefore a mere idea and is n
ot assumed to be a thing which is real absolutely and in itself. On the cont
rary, it forms merely the problematical foundation of the connection which t
he mind introduces among the phenomena of the sensuous world. We look upon t
his connection, in the light of the above-mentioned idea, as if it drew its
origin from the supposed being which corresponds to the idea. And yet all we
aim at is the possession of this idea as a secure foundation for the system
atic unity of experience- a unity indispensable to reason, advantageous to t
he understanding, and promotive of the interests of empirical cognition.
We mistake the true meaning of this idea when we regard it as an enounceme
nt, or even as a hypothetical declaration of the existence of a real thing,
which we are to regard as the origin or ground of a systematic constitution
of the universe. On the contrary, it is left completely undetermined what th
e nature or properties of this so-called ground may be. The idea is merely t
o be adopted as a point of view, from which this unity, so essential to reas
on and so beneficial to the understanding, may be regarded as radiating. In
one word, this transcendental thing is merely the schema of a regulative pri
nciple, by means of which Reason, so far as in her lies, extends the dominio
n of systematic unity over the whole sphere of experience.
The first object of an idea of this kind is the ego, considered merely as
a thinking nature or soul. If I wish to investigate the properties of a thin
king being, I must interrogate experience. But I find that I can apply none
of the categories to this object, the schema of these categories, which is t
he condition of their application, being given only in sensuous intuition. B
ut I cannot thus attain to the cognition of a systematic unity of all the ph
enomena of the internal sense. Instead, therefore, of an empirical conceptio
n of what the soul really is, reason takes the conception of the empirical u
nity of all thought, and, by cogitating this unity as unconditioned and prim
itive, constructs the rational conception or idea of a simple substance whic
h is in itself unchangeable, possessing personal identity, and in connection
with other real things external to it; in one word, it constructs the idea
of a simple self-subsistent intelligence. But the real aim of reason in this
procedure is the attainment of principles of systematic unity for the expla
nation of the phenomena of the soul. That is, reason desires to be able to r
epresent all the determinations of the internal sense as existing in one sub
ject, all powers as deduced from one fundamental power, all changes as mere
varieties in the condition of a being which is permanent and always the same
, and all phenomena in space as entirely different in their nature from the
procedure of thought. Essential simplicity (with the other attributes predic
ated of the ego) is regarded as the mere schema of this regulative principle
; it is not assumed that it is the actual ground of the properties of the so
ul. For these properties may rest upon quite different grounds, of which we
are completely ignorant; just as the above predicates could not give us any
knowledge of the soul as it is in itself, even if we regarded them as valid
in respect of it, inasmuch as they constitute a mere idea, which cannot be r
epresented in concreto. Nothing but good can result from a psychological ide
a of this kind, if we only take proper care not to consider it as more than
an idea; that is, if we regard it as valid merely in relation to the employm
ent of reason, in the sphere of the phenomena of the soul. Under the guidanc
e of this idea, or principle, no empirical laws of corporeal phenomena are c
alled in to explain that which is a phenomenon of the internal sense alone;
no windy hypotheses of the generation, annihilation, and palingenesis of sou
ls are admitted. Thus
the consideration of this object of the internal sense is kept pure, and unm
ixed with heterogeneous elements; while the investigation of reason aims at
reducing all the grounds of explanation employed in this sphere of knowledge
to a single principle. All this is best effected, nay, cannot be effected o
therwise than by means of such a schema, which requires us to regard this id
eal thing as an actual existence. The psychological idea is, therefore, mean
ingless and inapplicable, except as the schema of a regulative conception. F
or, if I ask whether the soul is not really of a spiritual nature- it is a q
uestion which has no meaning. From such a conception has been abstracted, no
t merely all corporeal nature, but all nature, that is, all the predicates o
f a possible experience; and consequently, all the conditions which enable u
s to cogitate an object to this conception have disappeared. But, if these c
onditions are absent, it is evident that the conception is meaningless.
The second regulative idea of speculative reason is the conception of the
universe. For nature is properly the only object presented to us, in regard
to which reason requires regulative principles. Nature is twofold- thinking
and corporeal nature. To cogitate the latter in regard to its internal possi
bility, that is, to determine the application of the categories to it, no id
ea is required- no representation which transcends experience. In this spher
e, therefore, an idea is impossible, sensuous intuition being our only guide
; while, in the sphere of psychology, we require the fundamental idea (I), w
hich contains a priori a certain form of thought namely, the unity of the eg
o. Pure reason has, therefore, nothing left but nature in general, and the c
ompleteness of conditions in nature in accordance with some principle. The a
bsolute totality of the series of these conditions is an idea, which can nev
er be fully realized in the empirical exercise of reason, while it is servic
eable as a rule for the procedure of reason in relation to that totality. It
requires us, in the explanation of given phenomena (in the regress or ascen
t in the series), to proceed as if the series were infinite in itself, that
is, were prolonged in indefinitum,; while on the other hand, where reason is
regarded as itself the determining cause (in the region of freedom), we are
required to proceed as if we had not before us an object of sense, but of t
he pure understanding. In this latter case, the conditions do not exist in t
he series of phenomena, but may be placed quite out of and beyond it, and th
e series of conditions may be regarded as if it had an absolute beginning fr
om an intelligible cause. All this proves that the cosmological ideas are no
thing but regulative principles, and not constitutive; and that their aim is
not to realize an actual totality in such series. The full discussion of th
is subject will be found in its proper place in the chapter on the
antinomy of pure reason.
The third idea of pure reason, containing the hypothesis of a being which
is valid merely as a relative hypothesis, is that of the one and all-suffici
ent cause of all cosmological series, in other words, the idea of God. We ha
ve not the slightest ground absolutely to admit the existence of an object c
orresponding to this idea; for what can empower or authorize us to affirm th
e existence of a being of the highest perfection- a being whose existence is
absolutely necessary- merely because we possess the conception of such a be
ing? The answer is: It is the existence of the world which renders this hypo
thesis necessary. But this answer makes it perfectly evident that the idea o
f this being, like all other speculative ideas, is essentially nothing more
than a demand upon reason that it shall regulate the connection which it and
its subordinate faculties introduce into the phenomena of the world by prin
ciples of systematic unity and, consequently, that it shall regard all pheno
mena as originating from one all-embracing being, as the supreme and all-suf
ficient cause. From this it is plain that the only aim of reason in this pro
cedure is the establishment of its own formal rule for the extension of its
dominion in the world of experience; that it does not aim at an extension of
its cognition beyond the limits of experience; and that, consequently, this
idea does not contain any constitutive principle.
The highest formal unity, which is based upon ideas alone, is the unity of
all things- a unity in accordance with an aim or purpose; and the speculati
ve interest of reason renders it necessary to regard all order in the world
as if it originated from the intention and design of a supreme reason. This
principle unfolds to the view of reason in the sphere of experience new and
enlarged prospects, and invites it to connect the phenomena of the world acc
ording to teleological laws, and in this way to attain to the highest possib
le degree of systematic unity. The hypothesis of a supreme intelligence, as
the sole cause of the universe- an intelligence which has for us no more tha
n an ideal existence- is accordingly always of the greatest service to reaso
n. Thus, if we presuppose, in relation to the figure of the earth (which is
round, but somewhat flattened at the poles),* or that of mountains or seas,
wise designs on the part of an author of the universe, we cannot fail to mak
e, by the light of this supposition, a great number of interesting discoveri
es. If we keep to this hypothesis, as a principle which is purely regulative
, even error cannot be very detrimental. For, in this case, error can have n
o more serious consequences than that, where we expected to discover a teleo
logical connection (nexus finalis), only a mechanical or physical connection
appears. In such a case, we merely fail to find the additional form of unit
y we expected, but we do not lose the rational unity which the mind requires
in its procedure in experience. But even a miscarriage of this sort cannot
affect the law in its general and teleological relations. For although we ma
y convict an anatomist of an error, when he connects the limb of some animal
with a certain purpose, it is quite impossible to prove in a single case th
at any arrangement of nature, be it what it may, is entirely without aim or
design. And thus medical physiology, by the aid of a principle presented to
it by pure reason, extends its very limited empirical knowledge of the purpo
ses of the different parts of an organized body so far that it may be assert
ed with the utmost confidence, and with the approbation of all reflecting me
n, that every organ or bodily part of an animal has its use and answers a ce
rtain design. Now, this is a supposition which, if regarded as of a constitu
tive character, goes much farther than any experience or observation of ours
can justify. Hence it is evident that it is nothing more than a regulative
principle of reason, which aims at the highest degree of systematic unity, b
y the aid of the idea of a causality according to design in a supreme cause-
a cause which it regards as the highest intelligence.
*The advantages which a circular form, in the case of the earth, has over
every other, are well known. But few are aware that the slight flattening at
the poles, which gives it the figure of a spheroid, is the only cause which
prevents the elevations of continents or even of mountains, perhaps thrown
up by some internal convulsion, from continually altering the position of th
e axis of the earth- and that to some considerable degree in a short time. T
he great protuberance of the earth under the Equator serves to overbalance t
he impetus of all other masses of earth, and thus to preserve the axis of th
e earth, so far as we can observe, in its present position. And yet this wis
e arrangement has been unthinkingly explained from the equilibrium of the fo
rmerly fluid mass.
If, however, we neglect this restriction of the idea to a purely regulativ
e influence, reason is betrayed into numerous errors. For it has then left t
he ground of experience, in which alone are to be found the criteria of trut
h, and has ventured into the region of the incomprehensible and unsearchable
, on the heights of which it loses its power and collectedness, because it h
as completely severed its connection with experience.
The first error which arises from our employing the idea of a Supreme Bein
g as a constitutive (in repugnance to the very nature of an idea), and not a
s a regulative principle, is the error of inactive reason (ignava ratio).* W
e may so term every principle which requires us to regard our investigations
of nature as absolutely complete, and allows reason to cease its inquiries,
as if it had fully executed its task. Thus the psychological idea of the eg
o, when employed as a constitutive principle for the explanation of the phen
omena of the soul, and for the extension of our knowledge regarding this sub
ject beyond the limits of experience- even to the condition of the soul afte
r death- is convenient enough for the purposes of pure reason, but detriment
al and even ruinous to its interests in the sphere of nature and experience.
The dogmatizing spiritualist explains the unchanging unity of our personali
ty through all changes of condition from the unity of a thinking substance,
the interest which we take in things and events that can happen only after o
ur death, from a consciousness of the immaterial nature of our thinking subj
ect, and so on. Thus he dispenses with all empirical investigations into the
cause of these internal phenomena, and with all possible explanations of th
em upon purely natural grounds; while, at the dictation of a transcendent re
ason, he passes by the immanent sources of cognition in experience, greatly
to his own ease and convenience, but to the sacrifice of all, genuine insigh
t and intelligence. These prejudicial consequences become still more evident
, in the case of the dogmatical treatment of our idea of a Supreme Intellige
nce, and the theological system of nature (physico-theology) which is falsel
y based upon it. For, in this case, the aims which we observe in nature, and
often those which we merely fancy to exist, make the investigation of cause
s a very easy task, by directing us to refer such and such phenomena immedia
tely to the unsearchable will and counsel of the Supreme Wisdom, while we ou
ght to investigate their causes in the general laws of the mechanism of matt
er. We are thus recommended to consider the labour of reason as ended, when
we have merely dispensed with its employment, which is guided surely and saf
ely only by the order of nature and the series of changes in the world- whic
h are arranged according to immanent and general laws. This error may be avo
ided, if we do not merely consider from the view-point of final aims certain
parts of nature, such as the division and structure of a continent, the con
stitution and direction of certain mountain-chains, or even the organization
existing in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, but look upon this systemati
c unity of nature in a perfectly general way, in relation to the idea of a S
upreme Intelligence. If we pursue this advice, we lay as a foundation for al
l investigation the conformity to aims of all phenomena of nature in accorda
nce with universal laws, for which no particular arrangement of nature is ex
empt, but only cognized by us with more or less difficulty; and we possess a
regulative principle of the systematic unity of a teleological connection,
which we do not attempt to anticipate or predetermine. All that we do, and o
ught to do, is to follow out the physico-mechanical connection in nature acc
ording to general laws, with the hope of discovering, sooner or later, the t
eleological connection also. Thus, and thus only, can the principle of final
unity aid in the extension of the employment of reason in the sphere of exp
erience, without being in any case detrimental to its interests.
*This was the term applied by the old dialecticians to a sophistical argum
ent, which ran thus: If it is your fate to die of this disease, you will die
, whether you employ a physician or not. Cicero says that this mode of reaso
ning has received this appellation, because, if followed, it puts an end to
the employment of reason in the affairs of life. For a similar reason, I hav
e applied this designation to the sophistical argument of pure reason.
The second error which arises from the misconception of the principle of s
ystematic unity is that of perverted reason (perversa ratio, usteron roteron
rationis). The idea of systematic unity is available as a regulative princi
ple in the connection of phenomena according to general natural laws; and, h
ow far soever we have to travel upon the path of experience to discover some
fact or event, this idea requires us to believe that we have approached all
the more nearly to the completion of its use in the sphere of nature, altho
ugh that completion can never be attained. But this error reverses the proce
dure of reason. We begin by hypostatizing the principle of systematic unity,
and by giving an anthropomorphic determination to the conception of a Supre
me Intelligence, and then proceed forcibly to impose aims upon nature. Thus
not only does teleology, which ought to aid in the completion of unity in ac
cordance with general laws, operate to the destruction of its influence, but
it hinders reason from attaining its proper aim, that is, the proof, upon
natural grounds, of the existence of a supreme intelligent cause. For, if we
cannot presuppose supreme finality in nature a priori, that is, as essentia
lly belonging to nature, how can we be directed to endeavour to discover thi
s unity and, rising gradually through its different degrees, to approach the
supreme perfection of an author of all- a perfection which is absolutely ne
cessary, and therefore cognizable a priori? The regulative principle directs
us to presuppose systematic unity absolutely and, consequently, as followin
g from the essential nature of things- but only as a unity of nature, not me
rely cognized empirically, but presupposed a priori, although only in an ind
eterminate manner. But if I insist on basing nature upon the foundation of a
supreme ordaining Being, the unity of nature is in effect lost. For, in thi
s case, it is quite foreign and unessential to the nature of things, and can
not be cognized from the general laws of nature. And thus arises a vicious c
ircular argument, what ought to have been proved having been presupposed.
To take the regulative principle of systematic unity in nature for a const
itutive principle, and to hypostatize and make a cause out of that which is
properly the ideal ground of the consistent and harmonious exercise of reaso
n, involves reason in inextricable
embarrassments. The investigation of nature pursues its own path under the g
uidance of the chain of natural causes, in accordance with the general laws
of nature, and ever follows the light of the idea of an author of the univer
se- not for the purpose of deducing the finality, which it constantly pursue
s, from this Supreme Being, but to attain to the cognition of his existence
from the finality which it seeks in the existence of the phenomena of nature
, and, if possible, in that of all things to cognize this being, consequentl
y, as absolutely necessary. Whether this latter purpose succeed or not, the
idea is and must always be a true one, and its employment, when merely regul
ative, must always be accompanied by truthful and beneficial results.
Complete unity, in conformity with aims, constitutes absolute perfection.
But if we do not find this unity in the nature of the things which go to con
stitute the world of experience, that is, of objective cognition, consequent
ly in the universal and necessary laws of nature, how can we infer from this
unity the idea of the supreme and absolutely necessary perfection of a prim
al being, which is the origin of all causality? The greatest systematic unit
y, and consequently teleological unity, constitutes the very foundation of t
he possibility of the most extended employment of human reason. The idea of
unity is therefore essentially and indissolubly connected with the nature of
our reason. This idea is a legislative one; and hence it is very natural th
at we should assume the existence of a legislative reason corresponding to i
t, from which the systematic unity of nature- the object of the operations o
f reason- must be derived.
In the course of our discussion of the antinomies, we stated that it is al
ways possible to answer all the questions which pure reason may raise; and t
hat the plea of the limited nature of our cognition, which is unavoidable an
d proper in many questions regarding natural phenomena, cannot in this case
be admitted, because the questions raised do not relate to the nature of thi
ngs, but are necessarily originated by the nature of reason itself, and rela
te to its own internal constitution. We can now establish this assertion, wh
ich at first sight appeared so rash, in relation to the two questions in whi
ch reason takes the greatest interest, and thus complete our discussion of t
he dialectic of pure reason.
If, then, the question is asked, in relation to transcendental theology,*
first, whether there is anything distinct from the world, which contains the
ground of cosmical order and connection according to general laws? The answ
er is: Certainly. For the world is a sum of phenomena; there must, therefore
, be some transcendental basis of these phenomena, that is, a basis cogitabl
e by the pure understanding alone. If, secondly, the question is asked wheth
er this being is substance, whether it is of the greatest reality, whether i
t is necessary, and so forth? I answer that this question is utterly without
meaning. For all the categories which aid me in forming a conception of an
object cannot be employed except in the world of sense, and are without mean
ing when not applied to objects of actual or possible experience. Out of thi
s sphere, they are not properly conceptions, but the mere marks or indices o
f conceptions, which we may admit, although they cannot, without the help of
experience, help us to understand any subject or thing. If, thirdly, the qu
estion is whether we may not cogitate this being, which is distinct from the
world, in analogy with the objects of experience? The answer is: Undoubtedl
y, but only as an ideal, and not as a real object. That is, we must cogitate
it only as an unknown substratum of the systematic unity, order, and finali
ty of the world- a unity which reason must employ as the regulative principl
e of its investigation of nature. Nay, more, we may admit into the idea cert
ain anthropomorphic elements, which are promotive of the interests of this r
egulative principle. For it is no more than an idea, which does not relate d
irectly to a being distinct from the world, but to the regulative principle
of the systematic unity of the world, by means, however, of a schema of this
unity- the schema of a Supreme Intelligence, who is the wisely-designing au
thor of the universe. What this basis of cosmical unity may be in itself, we
know not- we cannot discover from the idea; we merely know how we ought to
employ the idea of this unity, in relation to the systematic operation of re
ason in the sphere of experience.
*After what has been said of the psychological idea of the ego and its pro
per employment as a regulative principle of the operations of reason, I need
not enter into details regarding the transcendental illusion by which the s
ystematic unity of all the various phenomena of the internal sense is hypost
atized. The procedure is in this case very similar to that which has been di
scussed in our remarks on the theological ideal.
But, it will be asked again, can we on these grounds, admit the existence
of a wise and omnipotent author of the world? Without doubt; and not only so
, but we must assume the existence of such a being. But do we thus extend th
e limits of our knowledge beyond the field of possible experience? By no mea
ns. For we have merely presupposed a something, of which we have no concepti
on, which we do not know as it is in itself; but, in relation to the systema
tic disposition of the universe, which we must presuppose in all our observa
tion of nature, we have cogitated this unknown being in analogy with an inte
lligent existence (an empirical conception), that is to say, we have endowed
it with those attributes, which, judging from the nature of our own reason,
may contain the ground of such a systematic unity. This idea is therefore v
alid only relatively to the employment in experience of our reason. But if w
e attribute to it absolute and objective validity, we overlook the fact that
it is merely an ideal being that we cogitate; and, by setting out from a ba
sis which is not determinable by considerations drawn from experience, we pl
ace ourselves in a position which incapacitates us from applying this princi
ple to the empirical employment of reason.
But, it will be asked further, can I make any use of this conception and h
ypothesis in my investigations into the world and nature? Yes, for this very
purpose was the idea established by reason as a fundamental basis. But may
I regard certain arrangements, which seemed to have been made in conformity
with some fixed aim, as the Arrangements of design, and look upon them as pr
oceeding from the divine will, with the intervention, however, of certain ot
her particular arrangements disposed to that end? Yes, you may do so; but at
the same time you must regard it as indifferent, whether it is asserted tha
t divine wisdom has disposed all things in conformity with his highest aims,
or that the idea of supreme wisdom is a regulative principle in the investi
gation of nature, and at the same time a principle of the systematic unity o
f nature according to general laws, even in those cases where we are unable
to discover that unity. In other words, it must be perfectly indifferent to
you whether you say, when you have discovered this unity: God has wisely wil
led it so; or: Nature has wisely arranged this. For it was nothing but the s
ystematic unity, which reason requires as a basis for the investigation of n
ature, that justified you in accepting the idea of a supreme intelligence as
a schema for a regulative principle; and, the farther you advance in the di
scovery of design and finality, the more certain the validity of your idea.
But, as the whole aim of this regulative principle was the discovery of a ne
cessary and systematic unity in nature, we have, in so far as we attain this
, to attribute our success to the idea of a Supreme Being; while, at the sam
e time, we cannot, without involving ourselves in contradictions, overlook t
he general laws of nature, as it was in reference to them alone that this id
ea was employed. We cannot, I say, overlook the general laws of nature, and
regard this conformity to aims observable in nature as contingent or hyperph
ysical in its origin; inasmuch as there is no ground which can justify us in
the admission of a being with such properties distinct from and above natur
e. All that we are authorized to assert is that this idea may be employed as
a principle, and that the properties of the being which is assumed to corre
spond to it may be regarded as systematically connected in analogy with the
causal determination of phenomena.
For the same reasons we are justified in introducing into the idea of the
supreme cause other anthropomorphic elements (for without these we could not
predicate anything of it); we may regard it as allowable to cogitate this c
ause as a being with understanding, the feelings of pleasure and displeasure
, and faculties of desire and will corresponding to these. At the same time,
we may attribute to this being infinite perfection- a perfection which nece
ssarily transcends that which our knowledge of the order and design in the w
orld authorize us to predicate of it. For the regulative law of systematic u
nity requires us to study nature on the supposition that systematic and fina
l unity in infinitum is everywhere discoverable, even in the highest diversi
ty. For, although we may discover little of this cosmical perfection, it bel
ongs to the legislative prerogative of reason to require us always to seek f
or and to expect it; while it must always be beneficial to institute all inq
uiries into nature in accordance with this principle. But it is evident that
, by this idea of a supreme author of all, which I place as the foundation o
f all inquiries into nature, I do not mean to assert the existence of such a
being, or that I have any knowledge of its existence; and, consequently, I
do not really deduce anything from the existence of this being, but merely f
rom its idea, that is to say, from the nature of things in this world, in ac
cordance with this idea. A certain dim consciousness of the true use of this
idea seems to have dictated to the philosophers of all times the moderate l
anguage used by them regarding the cause of the world. We find them employin
g the expressions wisdom and care of nature, and divine wisdom, as synonymou
s- nay, in purely speculative discussions, preferring the former, because it
does not carry the appearance of greater pretensions than such as we are en
titled to make, and at the same time directs reason to its proper field of a
ction- nature and her phenomena.
Thus, pure reason, which at first seemed to promise us nothing less than t
he extension of our cognition beyond the limits of experience, is found, whe
n thoroughly examined, to contain nothing but regulative principles, the vir
tue and function of which is to introduce into our cognition a higher degree
of unity than the understanding could of itself. These principles, by placi
ng the goal of all our struggles at so great a distance, realize for us the
most thorough connection between the different parts of our cognition, and t
he highest degree of systematic unity. But, on the other hand, if misunderst
ood and employed as constitutive principles of transcendent cognition, they
become the parents of illusions and contradictions, while pretending to int
roduce us to new regions of knowledge.
Thus all human cognition begins with intuitions, proceeds from thence to c
onceptions, and ends with ideas. Although it possesses, in relation to all t
hree elements, a priori sources of cognition, which seemed to transcend the
limits of all experience, a thoroughgoing criticism demonstrates that specul
ative reason can never, by the aid of these elements, pass the bounds of pos
sible experience, and that the proper destination of this highest faculty of
cognition is to employ all methods, and all the principles of these methods
, for the purpose of penetrating into the innermost secrets of nature, by th
e aid of the principles of unity (among all kinds of which teleological unit
y is the highest), while it ought not to attempt to soar above the sphere of
experience, beyond which there lies nought for us but the void inane. The c
ritical examination, in our Transcendental Analytic, of all the propositions
which professed to extend cognition beyond the sphere of experience, comple
tely demonstrated that they can only conduct us to a possible experience. If
we were not distrustful even of the clearest abstract theorems, if we were
not allured by specious and inviting prospects to escape from the constraini
ng power of their evidence, we might spare ourselves the laborious examinati
on of all the dialectical arguments which a transcendent reason adduces in s
upport of its pretensions; for we should know with the most complete certain
ty that, however honest such professions might be, they are null and valuele
ss, because they relate to a kind of knowledge to which no man can by any po
ssibility attain. But, as there is no end to discussion, if we cannot discov
er the true cause of the illusions by which even the wisest are deceived, an
d as the analysis of all our transcendent cognition into its elements is of
itself of no slight value as a psychological study, while it is a duty incum
bent on every philosopher- it was found necessary to investigate the dialect
ical procedure of reason in its primary sources. And as the inferences of wh
ich this dialectic is the parent are not only deceitful, but naturally posse
ss a profound interest for humanity, it was advisable at the same time, to g
ive a full account of the momenta of this dialectical procedure, and to depo
sit it in the archives of human reason, as a warning to all future metaphysi
cians to avoid these causes of speculative error.
METHOD
--
※ 来源:·哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn·[FROM: riee2.hit.edu.cn]
Powered by KBS BBS 2.0 (http://dev.kcn.cn)
页面执行时间:623.358毫秒