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发信人: dogcat (评论员), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Communist Manifesto_1
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年09月23日21:20:58 星期天), 站内信件
发信人: lianxing (小铁 ★ 拼音加加,小鸭嘎嘎), 信区: Philosophy
标 题: The Communist Manifesto_1
发信站: BBS 水木清华站 (Tue Sep 5 00:07:19 2000)
A spectre is haunting Europe - the spectre of communism. All the powers of
old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope
and Tsar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies.
Where is the party in
opposition that has not been decried as communistic by its opponents in
power? Where is the opposition that has not hurled back the branding reproach
of communism, against the more advanced opposition parties, as well as
against its reactionary
adversaries?
Two things result from this fact:
I. Communism is already acknowledged by all European powers to be itself a
power.
II. It is high time that Communists should openly, in the face of the whole
world, publish their views, their aims, their tendencies, and meet this
nursery tale of the spectre of communism with a manifesto of the party
itself. To this end, Communists
of various nationalities have assembled in London and sketched the following
manifesto, to be published in the English, French, German, Italian, Flemish
and Danish languages.
I. BOURGEOIS AND PROLETARIANS [1]
The history of all hitherto existing society [2] is the history of class
struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebian, lord and serf,
guild-master [3] and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in
constant opposition to one
another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight
that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at
large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes. In the earlier epochs
of history, we find
almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a
manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians,
knights, plebians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals,
guild-masters, journeymen,
apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate
gradations. The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of
feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but
feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but
established new classes, new
conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. Our
epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinct
feature: it has simplified class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and
more splitting up into two
great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other -
bourgeoisie and proletariat. From the serfs of the Middle Ages sprang the
chartered burghers of the earliest towns. From these burgesses the first
elements of the bourgeoisie were
developed.
The discovery of America, the rounding of the Cape, opened up fresh ground
for the rising bourgeoisie. The East-Indian and Chinese markets, the
colonisation of America, trade with the colonies, the increase in the means
of exchange and in commodities
generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an impulse never
before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary element in the tottering
feudal society, a rapid development. The feudal system of industry, in which
industrial production was
monopolised by closed guilds, now no longer suffices for the growing wants of
the new markets. The manufacturing system took its place. The guild-masters
were pushed aside by the manufacturing middle class; division of labour
between the different
corporate guilds vanished in the face of division of labour in each single
workshop. Meantime, the markets kept ever growing, the demand ever rising.
Even manufacturers no longer sufficed. Thereupon, steam and machinery
revolutionised industrial
production. The place of manufacture was taken by the giant, modern industry;
the place of the industrial middle class by industrial millionaires, the
leaders of the whole industrial armies, the modern bourgeois. Modern industry
has established the
world market, for which the discovery of America paved the way. This market
has given an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to communication
by land. This development has, in turn, reacted on the extension of industry;
and in proportion as
industry, commerce, navigation, railways extended, in the same proportion the
bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and pushed into the background
every class handed down from the Middle Ages.
We see, therefore, how the modern bourgeoisie is itself the product of a long
course of development, of a series of revolutions in the modes of production
and of exchange. Each step in the development of the bourgeoisie was
accompanied by a
corresponding political advance in that class. An oppressed class under the
corresponding political advance in that class. An oppressed class under the
sway of the feudal nobility, an armed and self-governing association of
medieval commune [4]: here independent urban republic (as in Italy and
Germany); there taxable "third
estate" of the monarchy (as in France); afterward, in the period of
manufacturing proper, serving either the semi-feudal or the absolute monarchy
as a counterpoise against the nobility, and, in fact, cornerstone of the
great monarchies in general - the
bourgeoisie has at last, since the establishment of Modern Industry and of
the world market, conquered for itself, in the modern representative state,
exclusive political sway. The executive of the modern state is but a
committee for managing the
common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.
The bourgeoisie, historically, has played a most revolutionary part. The
bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all
feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. It has pitilessly torn asunder the
motley feudal ties that bound man
to his "natural superiors", and has left no other nexus between man and man
than naked self-interest, than callous "cash payment". It has drowned out the
most heavenly ecstasies of religious fervour, of chivalrous enthusiasm, of
philistine
sentimentalism, in the icy water of egotistical calculation. It has resolved
personal worth into exchange value, and in place of the numberless
indefeasible chartered freedoms, has set up that single, unconscionable
freedom - Free Trade. In one word,
for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has
substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation.
The bourgeoisie has stripped of its halo every occupation hitherto honoured
and looked up to with reverent awe. It has converted the physician, the
lawyer, the priest, the poet, the man of science, into its paid wage
labourers. The bourgeoisie has torn
away from the family its sentimental veil, and has reduced the family
relation into a mere money relation. The bourgeoisie has disclosed how it
came to pass that the brutal display of vigour in the Middle Ages, which
reactionaries so much admire, found
its fitting complement in the most slothful indolence. It has been the first
to show what man's activity can bring about. It has accomplished wonders far
surpassing Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and Gothic cathedrals; it has
conducted expeditions
that put in the shade all former exoduses of nations and crusades.
The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionising the
instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with
instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with
them the whole relations of society. Conservation of the old modes of
production in unaltered form, was, on
the contrary, the first condition of existence for all earlier industrial
classes. Constant revolutionising of production, uninterrupted disturbance of
all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the
bourgeois epoch from
all earlier ones. All fixed, fast frozen relations, with their train of
ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all new-formed
ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into
air, all that is holy is
profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses his real
condition of life and his relations with his kind. The need of a constantly
expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the entire
surface of the globe. It must
nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere. The
bourgeoisie has, through its exploitation of the world market, given a
cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. To the
great chagrin of
reactionaries, it has drawn from under the feet of industry the national
ground on which it stood. All old-established national industries have been
destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries,
whose introduction
whose introduction
becomes a life and death question for all civilised nations, by industries
that no longer work up indigenous raw material, but raw material drawn from
the remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home,
but in every quarter of
the globe. In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the
country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of
distant lands and climes.
In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we
have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations.
And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The intellectual
creations of individual
nations become common property. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness
become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local
literatures, there arises a world literature. The bourgeoisie, by the rapid
improvement of all
instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of
communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilisation.
The cheap prices of commodities are the heavy artillery with which it forces
the barbarians' intensely
obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. It compels all nations, on pain
of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to
introduce what it calls civilisation into their midst, i.e., to become
bourgeois themselves. In
one word, it creates a world after its own image.
The bourgeoisie has subjected the country to the rule of the towns. It has
created enormous cities, has greatly increased the urban population as
compared with the rural, and has thus rescued a considerable part of the
population from the idiocy of
rural life. Just as it has made the country dependent on the towns, so it has
made barbarian and semi-barbarian countries dependent on the civilised ones,
nations of peasants on nations of bourgeois, the East on the West. The
bourgeoisie keeps more and
more doing away with the scattered state of the population, of the means of
production, and of property. It has agglomerated population, centralised the
means of production, and has concentrated property in a few hands. The
necessary consequence of
this was political centralisation. Independent, or but loosely connected
provinces, with separate interests, laws, governments, and systems of
taxation, became lumped together into one nation, with one government, one
code of laws, one national class
interest, one frontier, and one customs tariff. The bourgeoisie, during its
rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal
rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal
productive forces than have all preceding generations together. Subjection of
nature's forces to
man, machinery, application of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam
navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for
cultivation, canalisation or rivers, whole populations conjured out of the
ground - what earlier
century had even a presentiment that such productive forces slumbered in the
lap of social labour?
We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the
bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain
stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the
conditions under which
feudal society produced and exchanged, the feudal organisation of agriculture
and manufacturing industry, in one word, the feudal relations of property
became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces;
they became so many
fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder. Into their
place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political
constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the
bourgeois class. A similar movement
is going on before our own eyes. Modern bourgeois society, with its relations
of production, of exchange and of property, a society that has conjured up
such gigantic means of production and of exchange, is like the sorcerer who
is no longer able to
control the powers of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells.
For many a decade past, the history of industry and commerce is but the
history of the revolt of modern productive forces against modern conditions
of production, against the
property relations that are the conditions for the existence of the bourgeois
and of its rule. It is enough to mention the commercial crises that, by their
periodical return, put the existence of the entire bourgeois society on its
trial, each time
more threateningly. In these crises, a great part not only of the existing
products, but also of the previously created productive forces, are
periodically destroyed. In these crises, there breaks out an epidemic that,
in all earlier epochs, would have
seemed an absurdity - the epidemic of over-production.
Society suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary barbarism;
it appears as if a famine, a universal war of devastation, had cut off the
supply of every means of subsistence; industry and commerce seem to be
destroyed. And why? Because
there is too much civilisation, too much means of subsistence, too much
there is too much civilisation, too much means of subsistence, too much
industry, too much commerce. The productive forces at the disposal of society
no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois
property; on the contrary,
they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are
fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring disorder
into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois
property. The conditions of
bourgeois society are too narrow to comprise the wealth created by them. And
how does the bourgeoisie get over these crises? One the one hand, by enforced
destruction of a mass of productive forces; on the other, by the conquest of
new markets, and by
the more thorough exploitation of the old ones. That is to say, by paving the
way for more extensive and more destructive crises, and by diminishing the
means whereby crises are prevented. The weapons with which the bourgeoisie
felled feudalism to the
ground are now turned against the bourgeoisie itself. But not only has the
bourgeoisie forged the weapons that bring death to itself; it has also called
into existence the men who are to wield those weapons - the modern working
class - the
proletarians. In proportion as the bourgeoisie, i.e., capital, is developed,
in the same proportion is the proletariat, the modern working class,
developed - a class of labourers, who live only so long as they find work,
and who find work only so long
as their labour increases capital. These labourers, who must sell themselves
piecemeal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are
consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the
fluctuations of the market.
Owing to the extensive use of machinery, and to the division of labour, the
work of the proletarians has lost all individual character, and,
consequently, all charm for the workman. He becomes an appendage of the
machine, and it is only the most
simple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack, that is required of
him. Hence, the cost of production of a workman is restricted, almost
entirely, to the means of subsistence that he requires for maintenance, and
for the propagation of his
race. But the price of a commodity, and therefore also of labour, is equal to
its cost of production. In proportion, therefore, as the repulsiveness of the
work increases, the wage decreases. What is more, in proportion as the use of
machinery and
division of labour increases, in the same proportion the burden of toil also
increases, whether by prolongation of the working hours, by the increase of
the work exacted in a given time, or by increased speed of machinery, etc.
Modern Industry has
Modern Industry has
converted the little workshop of the patriarchal master into the great
factory of the industrial capitalist. Masses of labourers, crowded into the
factory, are organised like soldiers. As privates of the industrial army,
they are placed under the
command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Not only are they
slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois state; they are daily and
hourly enslaved by the machine, by the overlooker, and, above all, in the
individual bourgeois
manufacturer himself. The more openly this despotism proclaims gain to be its
end and aim, the more petty, the more hateful and the more embittering it is.
The less the skill and exertion of strength implied in manual labour, in
other words, the more
modern industry becomes developed, the more is the labour of men superseded
by that of women. Differences of age and sex have no longer any distinctive
social validity for the working class. All are instruments of labour, more or
less expensive to use,
according to their age and sex.
No sooner is the exploitation of the labourer by the manufacturer, so far at
an end, that he receives his wages in cash, than he is set upon by the other
portion of the bourgeoisie, the landlord, the shopkeeper, the pawnbroker,
etc. The lower strata of
the middle class - the small tradespeople, shopkeepers, and retired tradesmen
generally, the handicraftsmen and peasants - all these sink gradually into
the proletariat, partly because their diminutive capital does not suffice for
the scale on which
Modern Industry is carried on, and is swamped in the competition with the
large capitalists, partly because their specialised skill is rendered
worthless by new methods of production. Thus, the proletariat is recruited
from all classes of the
population. The proletariat goes through various stages of development. With
its birth begins its struggle with the bourgeoisie. At first, the contest is
carried on by individual labourers, then by the work of people of a factory,
then by the operative
of one trade, in one locality, against the individual bourgeois who directly
exploits them. They direct their attacks not against the bourgeois condition
of production, but against the instruments of production themselves; they
destroy imported wares
that compete with their labour, they smash to pieces machinery, they set
factories ablaze, they seek to restore by force the vanished status of the
workman of the Middle Ages. At this stage, the labourers still form an
incoherent mass scattered over
the whole country, and broken up by their mutual competition.
If anywhere they unite to form more compact bodies, this is not yet the
consequence of their own active union, but of the union of the bourgeoisie,
which class, in order to attain its own political ends, is compelled to set
the whole proletariat in
motion, and is moreover yet, for a time, able to do so. At this stage,
therefore, the proletarians do not fight their enemies, but the enemies of
their enemies, the remnants of absolute monarchy, the landowners, the
non-industrial bourgeois, the petty
bourgeois. Thus, the whole historical movement is concentrated in the hands
of the bourgeoisie; every victory so obtained is a victory for the
bourgeoisie. But with the development of industry, the proletariat not only
increases in number; it becomes
concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that
strength more. The various interests and conditions of life within the ranks
of the proletariat are more and more equalised, in proportion as machinery
obliterates all distinctions
of labour, and nearly everywhere reduces wages to the same low level. The
growing competition among the bourgeois, and the resulting commercial crises,
make the wages of the workers ever more fluctuating.
The increasing improvement of machinery, ever more rapidly developing, makes
their livelihood more and more precarious; the collisions between individual
workmen and individual bourgeois take more and more the character of
collisions between two
classes. Thereupon, the workers begin to form combinations (trade unions)
against the bourgeois; they club together in order to keep up the rate of
wages; they found permanent associations in order to make provision
beforehand for these occasional
revolts. Here and there, the contest breaks out into riots. Now and then the
workers are victorious, but only for a time. The real fruit of their battles
lie not in the immediate result, but in the ever expanding union of the
workers. This union is
helped on by the improved means of communication that are created by Modern
Industry, and that place the workers of different localities in contact with
one another. It was just this contact that was needed to centralise the
numerous local struggles,
all of the same character, into one national struggle between classes. But
every class struggle is a political struggle. And that union, to attain which
the burghers of the Middle Ages, with their miserable highways, required
centuries, the modern
proletarian, thanks to railways, achieve in a few years.
This organisation of the proletarians into a class, and, consequently, into a
political party, is continually being upset again by the competition between
political party, is continually being upset again by the competition between
the workers themselves. But it ever rises up again, stronger, firmer,
mightier. It compels
legislative recognition of particular interests of the workers, by taking
advantage of the divisions among the bourgeoisie itself. Thus, the Ten-Hours
Bill in England was carried. Altogether, collisions between the classes of
the old society further in
many ways the course of development of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie finds
itself involved in a constant battle. At first with the aristocracy; later
on, with those portions of the bourgeoisie itself, whose interests have
become antagonistic to the
progress of industry; at all time with the bourgeoisie of foreign countries.
In all these battles, it sees itself compelled to appeal to the proletariat,
to ask for help, and thus to drag it into the political arena. The
bourgeoisie itself, therefore,
supplies the proletariat with its own elements of political and general
education, in other words, it furnishes the proletariat with weapons for
fighting the bourgeoisie. Further, as we have already seen, entire sections
of the ruling class are, by the
advance of industry, precipitated into the proletariat, or are at least
threatened in their conditions of existence. These also supply the
proletariat with fresh elements of enlightenment and progress.
Finally, in times when the class struggle nears the decisive hour, the
progress of dissolution going on within the ruling class, in fact within the
whole range of old society, assumes such a violent, glaring character, that a
small section of the
ruling class cuts itself adrift, and joins the revolutionary class, the class
that holds the future in its hands. Just as, therefore, at an earlier period,
a section of the nobility went over to the bourgeoisie, so now a portion of
the bourgeoisie goes
over to the proletariat, and in particular, a portion of the bourgeois
ideologists, who have raised themselves to the level of comprehending
theoretically the historical movement as a whole. Of all the classes that
stand face to face with the
bourgeoisie today, the proletariat alone is a genuinely revolutionary class.
The other classes decay and finally disappear in the face of Modern Industry;
the proletariat is its special and essential product. The lower middle class,
the small
manufacturer, the shopkeeper, the artisan, the peasant, all these fight
against the bourgeoisie, to save from extinction their existence as fractions
of the middle class. They are therefore not revolutionary, but conservative.
Nay, more, they are
reactionary, for they try to roll back the wheel of history. If, by chance,
they are revolutionary, they are only so in view of their impending transfer
into the proletariat; they thus defend not their present, but their future
interests; they desert
their own standpoint to place themselves at that of the proletariat. The
"dangerous class", the social scum, that passively rotting mass thrown off by
the lowest layers of the old society, may, here and there, be swept into the
movement by a
proletarian revolution; its conditions of life, however, prepare it far more
for the part of a bribed tool of reactionary intrigue. In the condition of
the proletariat, those of old society at large are already virtually swamped.
The proletarian is without property; his relation to his wife and children
has no longer anything in common with the bourgeois family relations; modern
industry labour, modern subjection to capital, the same in England as in
France, in America as in
Germany, has stripped him of every trace of national character. Law,
morality, religion, are to him so many bourgeois prejudices, behind which
lurk in ambush just as many bourgeois interests. All the preceding classes
that got the upper hand sought to
fortify their already acquired status by subjecting society at large to their
conditions of appropriation. The proletarians cannot become masters of the
productive forces of society, except by abolishing their own previous mode of
appropriation, and
appropriation, and
thereby also every other previous mode of appropriation. They have nothing of
their own to secure and to fortify; their mission is to destroy all previous
securities for, and insurances of, individual property. All previous
historical movements were
movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. The proletarian
movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority,
in the interest of the immense majority. The proletariat, the lowest stratum
of our present
society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up, without the whole
superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air.
Though not in substance, yet in form, the struggle of the proletariat with
the bourgeoisie is at first a national struggle. The proletariat of each
country must, of course, first of all settle matters with its own
bourgeoisie. In depicting the most
general phases of the development of the proletariat, we traced the more or
less veiled civil war, raging within existing society, up to the point where
that war breaks out into open revolution, and where the violent overthrow of
the bourgeoisie lays
the foundation for the sway of the proletariat. Hitherto, every form of
society has been based, as we have already seen, on the antagonism of
oppressing and oppressed classes. But in order to oppress a class, certain
conditions must be assured to it
under which it can, at least, continue its slavish existence. The serf, in
the period of serfdom, raised himself to membership in the commune, just as
the petty bourgeois, under the yoke of the feudal absolutism, managed to
develop into a bourgeois.
The modern labourer, on the contrary, instead of rising with the process of
industry, sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his
own class. He becomes a pauper, and pauperism develops more rapidly than
population and wealth. And
here it becomes evident that the bourgeoisie is unfit any longer to be the
ruling class in society, and to impose its conditions of existence upon
society as an overriding law. It is unfit to rule because it is incompetent
to assure an existence to its
slave within his slavery, because it cannot help letting him sink into such a
state, that it has to feed him, instead of being fed by him. Society can no
longer live under this bourgeoisie, in other words, its existence is no
longer compatible with
society.
The essential conditions for the existence and for the sway of the bourgeois
class is the formation and augmentation of capital; the condition for capital
is wage labour. Wage labour rests exclusively on competition between the
is wage labour. Wage labour rests exclusively on competition between the
labourers. The advance
of industry, whose involuntary promoter is the bourgeoisie, replaces the
isolation of the labourers, due to competition, by the revolutionary
combination, due to association. The development of Modern Industry,
therefore, cuts from under its feet the
very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products.
What the bourgeoisie therefore produces, above all, are its own
grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally
inevitable.
[back to table of contents] [forward to section]
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--
FOOTNOTES
[1] By bourgeoisie is meant the class of modern capitalists, owners of the
means of social production and employers of wage labour. By proletariat, the
class of modern wage labourers who, having no means of production of their
own, are reduced to
selling their labour power in order to live. [Note by Engels - 1888 English
edition] [back to text]
[2] That is, all written history. In 1847, the pre-history of society, the
social organisation existing previous to recorded history, all but unknown.
Since then, August von Haxthausen (1792-1866) discovered common ownership of
land in Russia, Georg
Ludwig von Maurer proved it to be the social foundation from which all
Teutonic races started in history, and, by and by, village communities were
found to be, or to have been, the primitive form of society everywhere from
India to Ireland. The inner
organisation of this primitive communistic society was laid bare, in its
typical form, by Lewis Henry Morgan's (1818-1861) crowning discovery of the
true nature of the gens and its relation to the tribe. With the dissolution
of the primeval
communities, society begins to be differentiated into separate and finally
antagonistic classes. I have attempted to retrace this dissolution in Der
Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthumus und des Staats, second edition,
Stuttgart, 1886. [Engels,
1888 English edition] [back to text]
[3] Guild-master, that is, a full member of a guild, a master within, not a
aster within, not a
head of a guild. [Engels: 1888 English edition] [back to text]
[4] This was the name given their urban communities by the townsmen of Italy
and France, after they had purchased or conquered their initial rights of
self-government from their feudal lords. [Engels: 1890 German edition]
"Commune" was the name taken
in France by the nascent towns even before they had conquered from their
feudal lords and masters local self-government and political rights as the
"Third Estate". Generally speaking, for the economical development of the
bourgeoisie, England is here
taken as the typical country, for its political development, France. [Engels:
1888 English edition] [back to text]
--
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