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发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Reading
标 题: The Reality of Freedom IX(转载)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日02:38:28 星期四), 站内信件
【 以下文字转载自 Philosophy 讨论区 】
【 原文由 Christy 所发表 】
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY
The Reality of Freedom
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IX
THE IDEA OF FREEDOM
For cognition the concept of a tree is conditioned by the perception of the
tree. When confronted with a particular perception I can lift out only one d
efinite concept from the general system of concepts. The connection between
concept and perception is determined indirectly and objectively through thin
king according to the perception. The connection of the perception with its
concept is recognized after the act of perception; but that they belong to o
ne another is already inherent in the object itself.
The process is different when the relation of man to the world is considered
, as it arises within knowledge. In the preceding explanation the attempt ha
s been made to show that it is possible to throw light on this relation if o
ne observes it without prejudice. A real understanding of such an observatio
n leads to the insight that thinking can be directly experienced as a self-c
ontained reality. In order to explain thinking as such, those who find it ne
cessary to add something to it, such as physical brain-processes or unconsci
ous spiritual processes lying behind the conscious thinking which is being o
bserved, underestimate what can be seen when thinking is observed without pr
ejudice. During his observation of thinking, the observer lives directly wit
hin a spiritual, self-sustaining activity of a living reality. Indeed one ca
n say that he who wants to grasp the reality of spirit in the form in which
it first presents itself to man, can do this in his own self-sustaining thin
king.
When thinking is observed, two things coincide which elsewhere must always a
ppear apart: concept and perception. If this is not recognized, then in the
concepts which have been worked out according to perceptions, one is unable
to see anything but shadowy copies of the perceptions, and will take the per
ceptions to be the full reality. Further, one will build up a metaphysical s
phere on the pattern of the perceived world, and each person, according to h
is views, will call this world a world of atoms, a world of will, a world of
unconscious spirit, and so on. And he will not notice that with all this he
merely hypothetically builds up a metaphysical world on the pattern of his
world of perceptions. But if he realizes what he has before him in thinking,
then he will also recognize that in the perception only a part of reality i
s present, and that the other part that belongs to it and first allows it to
appear as full reality, is experienced in the act of permeating the percept
ion with thinking. Then in what arises in consciousness as thinking, he will
also see not a shadowy copy of some reality, but spiritual reality itself.
And of this he can say that it becomes present in his consciousness through
intuition. Intuition is a conscious experience of a purely spiritual content
, taking place in the sphere of pure spirit. Only through an intuition can t
he reality of thinking be grasped.
Only when, by observing thinking without prejudice, one has wrestled one's w
ay through to recognizing the truth that the nature of thinking is intuitive
, is it possible to gain a real understanding of the body-soul organization
of man. Then one recognizes that this organization cannot affect the nature
of thinking. Quite obvious facts seem to contradict this at first. For ordin
ary experience, human thinking only takes place connected with, and by means
of, the organization. This comes so strongly to the fore that the true fact
s can only be seen when it has been recognized that nothing from the organiz
ation plays into thinking as such. And then it is impossible not to notice h
ow extraordinary is the relation of the human organization to thinking. For
this organization has no effect at all on thinking; rather it withdraws when
the activity of thinking takes place; it suspends its own activity, it make
s room, and in the space that has become free, thinking appears. The spiritu
al substance that acts in thinking has a twofold task: first it presses back
the human organization in its activity, and next, it steps into the place o
f it. The first, the pressing back of the bodily organization, is also a con
sequence of the thinking activity, and indeed of that part of this activity
which prepares the manifestation of thinking. This explains the sense in whi
ch thinking finds its counterpart in the bodily organization. And when this
is recognized, one will no longer mistake this counterpart for thinking itse
lf. If someone walks over soft ground, his feet leave impressions in the soi
l. But one is not tempted to say that the forces of the ground have formed t
hese imprints from below. One will not ascribe to these forces any participa
tion in the creating of the footprints. So too, one who, without prejudice,
observes the nature of thinking will not ascribe to the imprints in the bodi
ly organization any participation in the nature of thinking, for the imprint
s in the organization come about through the fact that thinking prepares its
manifestation through the body."
[footnote: The significance of the above view in relation to psychology, phy
siology, etc., in various directions has been set forth by the author in wor
ks published after this book. Here the aim is only to characterize what can
be recognized by an unprejudiced observation of thinking.]
Now a significant question arises. If the human organism does not partake in
the spiritual substance of thinking, what significance has this organism wi
thin man's being as a whole? Now what happens in this organism through think
ing has nothing to do with the nature of thinking, but indeed it has to do w
ith the arising of the I-consciousness within thinking. The real "I" exists
within the being of thinking, but not so the I-consciousness. This will be r
ecognized if only thinking is observed without prejudice. The "I" is to be f
ound within thinking; the "I-consciousness" arises through the fact that the
imprints of the activity of thinking are engraved upon the general consciou
sness in the sense explained above. (The I-consciousness therefore arises th
rough the bodily organism. But by this is not meant that the I-consciousness
, once it has arisen, remains dependent on the bodily organism. Once arisen,
it is taken up into thinking and henceforth shares its spiritual nature.)
The human organism is the foundation of the "I-consciousness." It is also th
e source of will-activity. It follows from the preceding explanation that an
insight into the connection between thinking, conscious I, and will activit
y can only be obtained if we first observe how will-activity issues from the
human organism.44b
The factors to be considered in a particular act of will are the motive and
the driving force. The motive is either a concept or a representation; the d
riving force is the will element and is directly conditioned by the human or
ganism. The conceptual factor, or motive, is the momentary source from which
the will is determined; the driving force is the permanent source of determ
ination in the individual. A motive of will may be a pure concept or a conce
pt with a definite reference to what is perceived, i.e. a representation. Ge
neral and individual concepts (representations) become motives of will by in
fluencing the human individual and determine him to act in a particular dire
ction. But one and the same concept, or one and the same representation, inf
luences different individuals differently. It impels different people to dif
ferent actions. Will, therefore, does not come about merely as a result of t
he concept, or representation, but also through the individual disposition o
f human beings. This individual disposition we will call - in this respect o
ne can follow Eduard von Hartmann45 - the characterological disposition. The
way in which concepts and representations influence the characterological d
isposition of a person gives his life a definite moral or ethical stamp.
The characterological disposition is formed through the more or less constan
t life-content of our subject, that is, through the content of our represent
ations and feelings. Whether a present representation stimulates me to will
or not, depends on how the representation is related to the content of the r
est of my representations, and also to my particular feelings. The content o
f my representations is determined in turn by all those concepts which in th
e course of my individual life have come into contact with perceptions, that
is, have become representations. This again depends on my greater or lesser
capacity for intuition, and on the range of my observations, that is, on th
e subjective and the objective factors of experience,46 on my inner determin
ation and my place in life. The characterological disposition is more partic
ularly determined by the life of feeling. Whether I make a definite represen
tation or concept the motive of my action will depend on whether it gives me
pleasure or pain. - These are the elements which come into consideration in
an act of will. The immediately present representation or concept which bec
omes motive, determines the aim, the purpose of my will; my characterologica
l disposition determines me to direct my activity toward this aim. The repre
sentation, to go for a walk in the next half-hour, determines the aim of my
action. But this representation is elevated to a motive of will only if it m
eets with a suitable characterological disposition, that is, if during my li
fe until now I have formed representations concerning the purpose of walking
, its value for health, and further, if the representation of walking combin
es in me with a feeling of pleasure.
We therefore must distinguish: 1) the possible subjective dispositions which
are suitable for turning definite representations and concepts into motives
; and 2) the possible representations and concepts which are capable of so i
nfluencing my characterological disposition that willing is the result. The
first represents the driving force, the second, the aims of morality.
We can find the driving force of morality by investigating the elements whic
h comprise individual life.
The first level of individual life is perceiving, more particularly, perceiv
ing by means of the senses. Here we are concerned with that region of our in
dividual life where perceiving, without a feeling or a concept coming betwee
n, is directly transformed into willing. The driving force in man, which com
es into consideration here, we shall simply call instinct. The satisfaction
of our lower, purely animal needs (hunger, sexual intercourse, etc.) takes p
lace in this way. What is most characteristic of instinctive life is the imm
ediacy with which a particular perception releases the will. This kind of de
termination of the will, which is characteristic only of lower sense-life to
begin with, can also be extended to the perceptions of the higher senses. W
e let a deed follow upon the perception of some event or other in the outer
world without further reflection and without linking any particular feeling
to the perception, as in fact happens in conventional social life. The drivi
ng force of such conduct is what is called tact or moral etiquette. The more
often such a direct release of activity by a perception takes place, the mo
re the person concerned is able to act purely under the guidance of tact, th
at is: tact becomes his characterological disposition.
The second level of human life is feeling. Definite feelings link themselves
to the perceptions of the outer world. These feelings can become the drivin
g forces of deeds. When I see a starving person, pity for him can become the
driving force of my action. Such feelings, for example, are shame, pride, h
onor, humility, remorse, pity, revenge, gratitude, piety, loyalty, love and
duty.46a
The third level of life is thinking and forming representations. A represent
ation or a concept can become motive for an action through mere reflection.
Representations become motives because in the course of life we continuously
link certain aims of will with perceptions which keep returning in more or
less modified form. This is why, when people not entirely without experience
have certain perceptions, there always also enter into their consciousness
representations of deeds which they themselves have carried out in a similar
instance, or have seen carried out. These representations hover before them
as determining models for all later decisions; they become united with thei
r characterological disposition. We could call this driving force of the wil
l, practical experience. Practical experience gradually merges into purely t
actful conduct. This happens when definite typical pictures of actions have
become so firmly connected in our consciousness with representations of cert
ain situations in life that in any given case we skip over all deliberation
based on experience and pass over directly from perception into willing.
The highest level of individual life is that of conceptual thinking without
reference to a definite perceptual content. We determine the content of a co
ncept through pure intuition from the ideal sphere. Such a concept contains
no reference to definite perceptions at first. If we pass over into willing
under the influence of a concept pointing to a perception, that is, a repres
entation, then it is this perception which determines us indirectly via the
conceptual thinking. When we act under the influence of intuitions, then the
driving force of our deed is pure thinking. Since in philosophy it is custo
mary to call the faculty of pure thinking, reason, it would be justifiable t
o call the moral driving force characteristic of this level, practical reaso
n. The clearest account of this driving force of the will has been given by
Kreyenb黨l.47 (Philosophische Monatshefte, Vol. XVIII, No. 3). I count his a
rticle on this subject among the most important contributions to present-day
philosophy, particularly to ethics. Kreyenb黨l characterizes this driving f
orce as practical apriori, that is, an impulse to action springing directly
from my intuition.
It is clear that in the strictest sense of the word, such an impulse can no
longer be considered as belonging to the characterological disposition. For
here what acts as driving force is no longer something merely individual in
me, but is the ideal and therefore the universal content of my intuition. As
soon as I see the justification for making this content the foundation and
starting-point of an action, I pass over into willing, irrespective of wheth
er I had the concept already, or whether it enters my consciousness only imm
ediately before acting, that is, irrespective of whether or not it was alrea
dy present in me as disposition.
An action is a real act of will only when a momentary impulse of action, in
the form of a concept or representation, influences the characterological di
sposition. Such an impulse then becomes the motive of will.
Motives of morality are representations and concepts. There are philosophers
of ethics who also see in feeling a motive for morality; they maintain, for
example, that the aim of moral conduct is the furtherance of the greatest p
ossible quantity of pleasure in the individual who acts. But in itself a ple
asure cannot be a motive; only a represented pleasure can. The representatio
n of a future feeling, but not the feeling itself, can influence my characte
rological disposition. For in the moment of acting the feeling itself is not
yet there; moreover it is to be produced by the action.
The representation of one's own or someone else's welfare, however, is right
ly regarded as a motive of will. The principle: through one's deed to bring
about the greatest amount of pleasure for oneself, that is, to attain person
al advantage, is egoism. It is striven for either by ruthlessly considering
only one's own welfare, even at the cost of the happiness of others (pure eg
oism), or by furthering the welfare of others because indirectly one expects
a favorable influence upon one's own self through the happiness of others,
or because one fears to endanger one's own interest by injuring others (mora
lity of prudence). The particular content of egoistical principles of morali
ty will depend upon what representations a person has of his own or of anoth
er's happiness. A person will determine the content of his egoistical strivi
ng according to what he considers to be the good things in life (luxury, hop
e of happiness, deliverance from various misfortunes, etc.).
Another motive is the purely conceptual content of actions. This content doe
s not refer to a particular action only, as in the case of the representatio
n of one's own pleasures, but to the reason for an action derived from a sys
tem of moral principles. In the form of abstract concepts these moral princi
ples may govern moral life without the single individual troubling himself a
bout the origin of the concepts. In that case, we simply feel the subjection
to the moral concept which, like a command, overshadows our deeds as a mora
l necessity. The reason for this necessity we leave to those who demand our
moral subjection, that is, to the moral authority we acknowledge (the head o
f the family, the state, social custom, the authority of the church, divine
revelation). A particular instance of these moral principles is when the com
mand announces itself to us, not through an external authority, but through
our own inner being (moral autonomy). In this case, within ourselves we sens
e the voice to which we have to submit. This voice finds expression in consc
ience.
It means moral progress when man does not simply take the command of an oute
r or inner authority as motive for his action, but strives to recognize the
reason why a particular principle of conduct should act as motive in him. Th
is is the advance from morality based on authority, to conduct based on mora
l insight. At this level of morality the person will consider the needs of m
oral life and will let this knowledge determine his actions. Such needs are:
1) the greatest possible welfare of humanity, purely for its own sake; 2) t
he progress of culture, or the moral development of mankind to ever greater
perfection; 3) the realization of individual aims of morality, which are gra
sped purely intuitively.
The greatest possible welfare of humanity will naturally be understood diffe
rently by different people. The above principle does not refer to a definite
representation of this welfare, but to the fact that each person who acknow
ledges this principle strives to do what in his opinion best furthers the we
lfare of humanity.
The progress of culture is seen as a special instance of the above-mentioned
moral principle by those who connect feelings of pleasure with the advantag
es of culture, but they will have to accept into the bargain the decline and
destruction of much that also contributes to the welfare of mankind. Howeve
r, it is also possible that in the progress of culture someone sees a moral
necessity, quite apart from the feeling of pleasure connected with it. Then
for him, the progress of culture is a particular moral principle, distinct f
rom the one mentioned previously.
The principle of the general welfare, as well as that of the progress of cul
ture, is based upon a representation, that is, upon how one relates the cont
ent of moral ideas to certain experiences (perceptions). But the highest thi
nkable principle of morality is one which contains no such relation from the
start, but springs from the source of pure intuition and only afterward see
ks the relation to perceptions (to life). Here the decision as to what is to
be willed proceeds from a different sphere than that of the previous exampl
es. In all his conduct, one in favor of the principle of the general welfare
will first ask what his ideals will contribute to this general welfare. He
who acknowledges the moral principle of the progress of culture, will do the
same. But at this level he could do something even higher: if in a particul
ar case he were not to proceed from one single definite aim of morality, but
were to recognize a certain value in all principles of morality and were al
ways to ask whether the one or the other would be more important here. It ma
y happen that in certain circumstances one considers the progress of culture
, in others, the general welfare, and in yet others, the furtherance of his
own welfare, to be the right aim and motive of his actions. But when all suc
h reasons take second place, then first and foremost the conceptual intuitio
n itself comes into consideration. When this happens, then all other motives
retreat from the leading position and the idea-content of the action alone
is effective as its motive.
Among the levels of characterological disposition, we have shown the one whi
ch acts as pure thinking, as practical reason, to be the highest. From the m
otives, we have now shown conceptual intuition to be the highest. On closer
consideration, it will soon be seen that at this level of morality driving f
orce and motive coincide, that is, neither a predetermined characterological
disposition nor an external moral principle accepted on authority, influenc
es our conduct. The deed therefore is neither a conventional one, carried ou
t according to some rule or other, nor one automatically performed in respon
se to an external impulse; rather it is one which is determined solely throu
gh its ideal content.
Such conduct presupposes the capacity for moral intuition. Whoever lacks the
ability to experience the moral principle that applies in a particular inst
ance, will never achieve truly individual willing.
The exact opposite to this moral principle is the Kantian: Act so that the p
rinciples of your actions can be valid for all men. This principle is death
to all individual impulses of action. How all men would act cannot be a stan
dard for me, but rather what is right for me to do in the particular instanc
e.
To this, a superficial judgment could perhaps object: How can an action be i
ndividually adapted to the particular instance and the particular situation,
and yet at the same time be determined purely ideally by intuition? This ob
jection is due to a confusion of the moral motive and the perceptible conten
t of the action. The perceptible content could be a motive, and is one, for
example, when an act is done for the progress of culture or out of pure egoi
sm, etc., but it is not the motive when the reason for action is a pure mora
l intuition. My I naturally takes notice of this perceptual content, but is
not determined by it. This content is used only to form a cognitive concept,
but the moral concept that belongs to it, the I does not take from the obje
ct. The cognitive concept of a given situation confronting me is also a mora
l concept only if I base my view on a particular moral principle. If my view
point is limited to the general moral principle of the progress of culture,
then I go through life along a fixed route. From every event I perceive whic
h can occupy me, a moral duty also springs, namely, to do my best toward pla
cing the particular event in the service of the progress of culture. In addi
tion to the concept which reveals to me the natural law inherent in an event
or object, there is also a moral label attached to it which contains for me
, as a moral being, an ethical direction as to how I am to behave. This mora
l label is justified at a certain level, but at a higher level it coincides
with the idea that arises in me when I face the concrete instance.
Men differ greatly in their capacity for intuition. In one person ideas bubb
le up easily, while another person has to acquire them with much labor. The
situation in which men live, which is the scene of their actions, is no less
different. How a man acts will therefore depend on the way his capacity for
intuition functions in the face of a given situation. The sum of ideas acti
ve within us, the actual content of our intuitions, is what, for all the uni
versality of the idea-world, is individually constituted in each human being
. Insofar as this intuitive content is directed toward action, it is the mor
al content of the individual. To let this content come to expression is the
highest moral driving force and also the highest motive for the one who has
recognized that ultimately all other moral principles unite in this content.
This standpoint can be called ethical individualism.
The discovery of the quite individual intuition which corresponds to the sit
uation, is the deciding factor in an intuitively determined action. At this
level of morality one can speak only of general concepts of morality (norms,
laws) insofar as these result from the generalization of individual impulse
s. General norms always presuppose concrete facts from which they can be der
ived. But facts must first be produced by human deeds.
When we look for the laws (concepts) underlying the conduct of individuals,
peoples and epochs, we obtain a system of ethics, not as a science of moral
rules, but as a natural philosophy of morality. It is true that laws obtaine
d in this way are related to human conduct, as the laws of nature are relate
d to a particular phenomenon. But they are not at all identical with the imp
ulses upon which we base our conduct. If one wants to grasp the means by whi
ch man's action springs from his moral will, then one must first consider th
e relation of this will to the action. One must first select actions where t
his relation is the determining factor. If I, or someone else, reflect on su
ch an action later, then can be discovered upon what principle of morality t
he action is based. While I am acting I am moved to act by the moral princip
le insofar as it lives in me intuitively; the moral principle is united with
my love for what I want to accomplish by my deed. I ask no man and no code,
Shall I do this? - rather I do it the moment I have grasped the idea of it.
This alone makes it my action. The deeds of a person who acts solely becaus
e he acknowledges a definite moral standard, come about as a result of a pri
nciple which is part of his moral code. He is merely the agent. He is a high
er kind of automaton. If some impulse to action enters his consciousness, th
en at once the clockwork of his moral principle will be set in motion and ru
n to rule, in order to bring about a deed which is Christian, or humane, or
is deemed unselfish, or to further the progress of culture. Only when I foll
ow my love for the object is it I myself who acts. At this level of morality
I do not act because I acknowledge a ruler over me, an external authority,
or a so-called inner voice. I do not acknowledge any external principle for
my conduct, because I have found the source of my conduct within myself, nam
ely, my love for the deed. I do not prove intellectually whether my deed is
good or bad; I do it out of my love for it. My action will be "good" if my i
ntuition, immersed in love, exists in the right way within the relationship
between things; this can be experienced intuitively; the action will be "bad
" if this is not the case. Nor do I ask myself: How would another person act
in my place? - rather I act, as I, as this particular individuality, find m
y will motivated to act. I am not guided directly by what happens to be the
usual thing, the general habit, some general human code or moral standard, b
ut solely by my love for this deed. I feel no compulsion - neither the compu
lsion of nature which rules me through my instincts, nor the compulsion of m
oral commands. Rather, I simply carry out what lies within me.
Those who defend general moral standards will perhaps object: If each person
strives to express and do only what he pleases, then there is no difference
between a good deed and a crime; every depraved impulse in me has the same
right to express itself as has the intention to do my best. The fact that I
have a deed in mind, according to an idea, cannot set my standard as a moral
human being, but only the test as to whether it is a good or evil deed. Onl
y if it is good should I carry it out.
My reply to this obvious objection, which nonetheless is based on a misunder
standing of what is meant here, is this: One who wants to understand the nat
ure of human will must differentiate between the path which brings this will
to a certain degree of development, and the unique character which the will
assumes as it approaches its goal. On the way toward this goal standards do
play their justified part. The goal consists in the realization of aims of
morality, grasped purely intuitively. Man attains such aims to the degree th
at he is at all able to raise himself to the intuitive idea-content of the w
orld. In particular instances such aims are usually mixed with other element
s, either as driving force or as motive. Nevertheless, in the human will int
uition can be the determining factor, wholly or in part. A person does what
he ought to do, he provides the stage upon which "ought" becomes deed; it is
absolutely his own deed which he brings to expression. The impulse here can
only be completely individual. And, in fact, only an act of will which spri
ngs from intuition can be individual. To call the acts of criminals and what
is evil an expression of the individuality, in the same sense as the embodi
ment of pure intuition, is only possible if blind urges are reckoned as part
of the human individuality. But the blind urge which drives a person to cri
me does not spring from intuition and does not belong to what is individual
in man, but rather to what is most general in him, to what is equally valid
in all men, and out of which man works his way by means of what is individua
l in him. What is individual in me is not my organism with its urges and fee
lings, but rather the universal world of ideas which lights up within this o
rganism. My urges, instincts, passions confirm nothing more than that I belo
ng to the general species, man; the fact that something ideal comes to expre
ssion in a particular way within these urges, passions and feelings, confirm
s my individuality. Through my instincts and urges I am a person of whom the
re are twelve to the dozen; through the particular form of the idea, by mean
s of which I name myself "I" within the dozen, I am an individual. Only a be
ing other than myself could distinguish me from others by the difference in
my animal nature; through my thinking, that is, through the active grasp of
what expresses itself as an ideal within my organism, do I distinguish mysel
f from others. Therefore one definitely cannot say that the action of a crim
inal springs from the idea in him. Indeed, this is just what is characterist
ic of a criminal deed: it stems from elements in man which are external to t
he ideal-element in him.
An action is felt to be free insofar as the reason for it springs from the i
deal part of my individual being; any other part of an action, irrespective
of whether it is carried out under the compulsion of nature or under the obl
igation of a moral code, is felt to be unfree.
Man is free insofar as he is able, in every moment of his life, to follow hi
mself. A moral deed is my deed only if it can be called free in this sense.
What here have to be considered are the presuppositions necessary for a will
ed action to be felt as free; how this purely ethically grasped idea of free
dom realizes itself in human nature, will be seen in what follows.
A deed done out of freedom does not at all exclude, but includes moral laws,
but it will be a deed done from a higher sphere compared with those dictate
d solely by such laws. Why should my deed serve the general welfare any less
when it is done out of love, than when I do it solely for the reason that I
feel that to serve the general welfare is a duty? The concept of mere duty
excludes freedom because it does not include what is individual, but demands
subjection of the individual to a general standard. Freedom of action is th
inkable only from the standpoint of ethical individualism.
But how is it possible for people to live in a community if each person stri
ves to assert only his own individuality? This objection is characteristic o
f misunderstood moralism. A person holding this viewpoint believes that a co
mmunity of people is possible only if all men are united by general fixed mo
ral rules. He simply does not understand the oneness and harmony of the idea
-world. He does not realize that the idea-world which is active in me is non
e other than the one active in my fellow-man. This unity of ideas is indeed
nothing but a result of men's experience of life.47 Only this can it be. For
if the unity of the idea-world could be recognized by any means other than
by individual observation, then general rules and not personal experience wo
uld be valid in its sphere. Individuality is possible only when each individ
ual is acquainted with others through individual observation alone. The diff
erence between me and my fellow men is not at all because we live in two qui
te different spiritual worlds, but because from the world of ideas which we
share, he receives different intuitions from mine. He wants to live out his
intuitions, I mine. If we both really draw from the idea, and are not obeyin
g any external impulses (physical or spiritual), then we cannot but meet in
the same striving, in having the same intentions. A moral misunderstanding,
a clash between men who are morally free, is out of the question. Only the m
orally unfree who follow natural instincts or some accepted command of duty,
turn away from a fellow-man if he does not follow the same instinct and the
same command as themselves. To live in love of the action and to let live,
having understanding for the other person's will, is the fundamental princip
le of free human beings. They know no other "ought" than that with which the
ir will is intuitively in accord; how they shall will in a particular instan
ce, their power of ideation will tell them.
If human nature were not fundamentally social, no external laws could make i
t so! Only because individual human beings are one in the spiritual part of
their being, can they live out their lives side by side. The free man is con
fident that others who are free belong to the same spiritual world as he doe
s, and that they will meet him in their intentions. The free man does not de
mand agreement from his fellow men, but he expects it, because it lies in hu
man nature. This does not refer to the existing necessity for this or that e
xternal arrangement, but rather to the disposition, the attitude of soul thr
ough which man, in his experience of himself among fellow men for whom he ca
res, comes nearest to doing justice to human dignity.
There are many who will say that the concept of a free human being outlined
here is a chimera, is nowhere to be found as a reality, and that we have to
deal with real people from whom one can hope for morality only when they obe
y some moral law, when they regard their moral mission as a duty, and do not
freely follow their inclinations and preferences. - I certainly do not doub
t this. Only a blind man could do so. But then, away with all hypocrisy of m
orality if this is to be the ultimate conclusion. Then simply say: Human nat
ure must be compelled as long as it is not free. Whether the unfreedom is de
alt with by physical means or through moral laws, whether man is unfree beca
use he follows his immeasurable sexual instinct, or because he is hemmed in
by the fetters of conventional morality, is quite immaterial from a certain
point of view. But one should not maintain that such a man can rightly call
his actions his own, for he is driven to them by external powers. But there
are human beings who raise themselves above all these compelling rules, free
spirits who find their own self in the jumble of habits, regulations, relig
ious observance, etc. They are free insofar as they follow only themselves;
unfree insofar as they submit themselves. Which of us can say that he is rea
lly free in all that he deed But in each of us exists a higher being in whom
the free man comes to expression.
Our life is composed of free and unfree deeds. But we cannot complete the co
ncept of man without including the free spirit as the purest characteristic
of human nature. After all, we are truly human only insofar as we are free.
That is an ideal, many will say. Without doubt - but it is an ideal which wo
rks itself to the surface from within our nature as a reality. It is no "tho
ught out" or imagined ideal, but one in which there is life, one which clear
ly announces its presence even in its least perfect form of existence. If ma
n were merely a product of nature, the search for ideals, that is, for ideas
which for the moment are inactive but whose realization we demand, would no
t be possible. In the case of external objects the idea is determined by the
perception. We have done our share when we have recognized the connection b
etween idea and perception. But with man this is not so. His content is not
determined without him; his true concept as a moral being (free spirit) is n
ot objectively united with the perceptual picture "man" from the start merel
y in order to be confirmed by knowledge later. By his own activity man must
unite his concept with the perception, man. Concept and perception only coin
cide here if man himself brings it about. But he cannot do this till he has
found the concept of the free spirit, that is, his own concept. In the objec
tive world a line of division is drawn by our organization between perceptio
n and concept; cognition overcomes this division. In our subjective nature t
his division is no less present; man overcomes it in the course of his devel
opment by bringing his concept to expression in his outward existence. Both
man's intellectual as well as his moral life point to his twofold nature: pe
rceiving (direct experience) and thinking. In the intellectual life the two-
foldness is overcome through knowledge; in the moral life through actually b
ringing the free spirit to realization. Every being has its inborn concept (
the law of its existence and activity), but in external objects the concept
is indivisibly connected with the perception and separated from it only with
in our spiritual organism. In man concept and perception are to begin with,
actually apart, to be united by him just as actually. One could object: To o
ur perception of a man a definite concept corresponds at every moment of his
life, just as is the case with everything else. I can form a concept of a t
ypical man, and I may also find such a man given to me as a perception. If t
o this I also bring the concept of the free spirit, then I have two concepts
for the same object.
This line of thought is one-sided. As perceptual object I am subjected to pe
rpetual change. As a child I was one thing, another as a youth, yet another
as a man. In fact, at every moment the perceptual picture of myself is diffe
rent from what it was a moment ago. These changes may take place in such a w
ay that either it is always the same (the typical) man who expresses himself
in them, or they become the expression of the free spirit. The perceptual o
bject of my action is subjected to these changes.
In the perceptual object "man" the possibility of transformation is given, j
ust as in the plant-seed there lies the possibility of becoming a fully deve
loped plant. The plant transforms itself because of the objective laws which
are inherent in it; man remains in his imperfect state unless he takes hold
of the substance to be transformed within him and transforms it through his
own power. Nature makes man merely into a product of nature; society makes
him into a being who acts rationally, but he alone can make himself into a f
ree being. At a definite stage in his development nature releases man from i
ts fetters; society carries his development a stage further; the final polis
h he can only apply himself.
Therefore, from the standpoint of free morality it is not asserted that as f
ree spirit is the only form in which a man can exist. Free spirituality is t
he ultimate stage of man's development. And it is not denied that conduct ac
cording to rules has its justification as a stage of development. However, t
his cannot be acknowledged as the highest level of morality. But the free sp
irit in man overcomes rules in the sense that he does not accept only comman
ds as motives, but also regulates his conduct in accordance with his impulse
s (intuitions).
When Kant says of duty:48 "Duty! You sublime, you great name, you encompass
nothing beloved or endearing, but you demand submission," you "lay down a la
w ... before which all inclinations become silent, even if in secret they al
so go against it," then man, conscious of the free spirit, answers: "Freedom
! You friendly, humane name, you encompass all that is morally beloved, all
that is most worthy of my humanity, you make me no one's servant, you do not
merely lay down a law, but wait for what my moral love will of itself recog
nize as law, because it feels unfree when faced with any law simply forced u
pon it."
This is the contrast between mere law-abiding morality and morality born of
freedom.
The philistine who sees morality embodied in some external rule, may perhaps
even regard the free spirit as a dangerous person. But this is simply becau
se his view is limited to a certain period of time. If he were able to see b
eyond this, he would soon find that the free spirit need go beyond the laws
of his state as seldom as the philistine himself, and is never in any real o
pposition to them. For all the laws of the state have sprung from the intuit
ions of free spirits, just as have all other objective laws of morality. No
law is exercised through a family authority which was not at some time intui
tively grasped and laid down by an ancestor. Similarly the conventional laws
of morality were first laid down by definite people and so too the laws of
the state first arise in the head of a statesman. These individualities have
established laws over other people, and only he is unfree who forgets this
origin and either looks upon these laws as extra-human commands, that is, as
objective moral concepts of duty independent of man, or turns them into the
commanding voice thought of - in a falsely mystical way - as compelling him
in his own inner being. However, he who does not forget the origin of such
laws, but looks for it in man, will reckon with them as belonging to the sam
e idea-world as that from which he too draws his moral intuitions. If he bel
ieves his own intuitions to be better, then he will try to replace those in
existence with his own; but if he finds the existing ones justified, he will
act in accordance with them as if they were his own.
The formula must not be coined: Man is meant to realize a moral world order
which exists independent of him. Insofar as knowledge of man is concerned, o
ne maintaining this stands at the point where natural science stood when it
believed that the goat has horns in order to be able to butt. Fortunately na
tural scientists have rejected such a concept of purpose as a dead theory. I
t is more difficult to get rid of such theories in ethics. However, just as
horns do not exist because of butting, but butting exists through horns, so
man does not exist because of morality, but morality exists through man. The
free human being acts morally because he has a moral idea, but he does not
act in order that morality may come about. Human individuals, with the moral
ideas belonging to their nature, are the presupposition for a moral world-o
rder.
The human individual is the source of all morality and the center of earthly
life. State and society have come about only because they are the necessary
results of life shared by individual human beings. That state and society s
hould react in turn upon the life of the individual is understandable, just
as it is understandable that butting, which exists through the horns, reacts
in turn upon the further development of the goat's horns, which would waste
away by prolonged disuse. Similarly, the individual would waste away if he
led a separate existence outside a human community. This is just why the soc
ial order arises, so that it can react favorably upon the individual.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
※ 来源:·哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn·[FROM: 天外飞仙]
--
※ 转载:.哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn.[FROM: 天外飞仙]
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