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发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Reading
标 题: The Reality of Freedom XIII(转载)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日02:39:00 星期四), 站内信件
【 以下文字转载自 Philosophy 讨论区 】
【 原文由 Christy 所发表 】
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY
The Reality of Freedom
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XIII
THE VALUE OF LIFE
(Pessimism and Optimism)
The question concerning life's value is a counterpart to the question conce
rning its purpose or destination (cp. pp. 198 fit.). In this connection we m
eet with two contrasting views, and between them all imaginable attempts at
compromise. One view says: The world is the best possible, and to live and b
e active in it is a blessing of untold value. Everything exists harmoniously
and is full of purpose; it is worthy of admiration. Even what is apparently
bad and evil may be seen to be good from a higher point of view, for it rep
resents a beneficial contrast to the good; we are more able to appreciate th
e good when it is contrasted with evil. Moreover, evil is not genuinely real
: it is only that we see as evil a lesser degree of good. Evil is the absenc
e of good; it has no significance in itself.
The other view maintains: Life is full of misery and want, everywhere disple
asure outweighs pleasure, pain outweighs joy. Existence is a burden, and und
er all circumstances non-existence would be preferable to existence.
The main representatives of the former view, i.e., optimism, are Shaftesbury
and Leibnitz;56 those of the latter, i.e., pessimism, are Schopenhauer and
Eduard von Hartmann.57
Leibnitz says the world is the best of all possible worlds. A better one is
impossible. For God is good and wise. A good God would want to create the be
st possible world; a wise God would know which is the best possible; He is a
ble to distinguish it from all other possible inferior ones. Only a bad or u
nwise God could create a world inferior to the best possible.
Starting from this viewpoint, one will easily be able to indicate the direct
ion human conduct should take in order to contribute its share to the best o
f all worlds. All that man has to do is to find out God's decisions and to a
ct in accordance with them. When he knows what God's intentions are with reg
ard to the world and mankind, then he will also do what is right. And he wil
l feel happy to add his share to the rest of the good in the world. Therefor
e, from the optimistic standpoint life is worth living. This view cannot but
stimulate us to cooperative participation.
Schopenhauer presents matters differently. He thinks of the world's foundati
on not as an all-wise and all-kind Being, but as blind urge or will. Eternal
striving, ceaseless craving for satisfaction which yet can never be attaine
d, in his view is the fundamental essence of all will. For if an aim one has
striven for is attained, then immediately another need arises, and so on. S
atisfaction can always be only for an infinitely short time. All the rest of
the content of our life is unsatisfied urge, that is, dissatisfaction and s
uffering. If at last the blind urge is dulled, then all content is gone from
our lives; an infinite boredom pervades our existence. Therefore, the relat
ive best one can do is to stifle all wishes and needs within one, and exterm
inate one's will. Schopenhauer's pessimism leads to complete inactivity; his
moral aim is universal laziness.
By a very different argument Hartmann attempts to establish pessimism and us
e it as a foundation for ethics. In keeping with a favorite trend of our tim
e, he tries to base his world view on experience. By observation of life he
wishes to find out whether pleasure or displeasure is the more plentiful in
the world. He passes in review before the tribunal of reason whatever appear
s to men to be worth while in life, in order to show that on closer inspecti
on all so-called satisfaction turns out to be nothing but illusion. It is il
lusion when we believe that in health, youth, freedom, sufficient income, lo
ve (sexual enjoyment), pity, friendship and family life, honor, reputation,
glory, power, religious edification, pursuit of science and of art, hope of
a life hereafter, participation in the furtherance of culture, - we have sou
rces of happiness and satisfaction. Soberly considered, every enjoyment brin
gs much more evil and misery than pleasure into the world. The displeasure o
f a hangover is always greater than the pleasure of intoxication. Displeasur
e far outweighs pleasure in the world. No person, even the relatively happie
st, if asked, would want to live through the misery of life a second time. S
ince Hartmann does not deny the presence of an ideal factor (wisdom) in the
world, but even grants it equal significance with blind urge (will), he can
attribute the creation of the world to his primordial Being only if he lets
the pain in the world serve a wise world purpose. He sees the pain in the wo
rld as nothing but God's pain, for the life of the world as a whole is ident
ical with the life of God. The aim of an all-wise Being, however, could only
be release from suffering, and since all existence is suffering, release fr
om existence. The purpose of the world's creation is to transform existence
into nonexistence, which is so much better. The world process is nothing but
a continual battle against God's pain, which at last will end with the anni
hilation of all existence. The moral life of men must therefore be participa
tion in the annihilation of existence. God has created the world in order to
rid Himself of His infinite pain through it. The world "in a certain sense
is to be regarded as an itching eruption on the absolute," through which the
unconscious healing power of the absolute rids itself of an inward disease,
"or even as a painful drawing-plaster which the alone Being applies to Hims
elf in order first to divert an inner pain outward, and then to remove it al
together." Human beings are parts of the world. In them God suffers. He has
created them in order to split up His infinite pain. The pain each one of us
suffers is but a drop in the infinite ocean of God's pain.58
Man must recognize to the full that to pursue individual satisfaction (egoi
sm) is folly, that he ought to follow solely his task and through selfless d
evotion dedicate himself to the world-process of redeeming God. In contrast
to Schopenhauer's pessimism, that of von Hartmann leads us to devoted activi
ty for a lofty task.
But is the above really based on experience?
To strive after satisfaction means that the life activities go beyond the li
fe content of the being in question. A being is hungry, that is, it strives
for satiety when for their continuation, its organic functions demand to be
supplied with new life content in the form of nourishment. The striving for
honor consists in the person not regarding what he does as worth while unles
s he receives appreciation from others. Striving for knowledge arises when a
person finds that something is missing in the world that he sees, hears, et
c., as long as he has not understood it. The fulfilment of striving produces
pleasure in the striving individual; non-fulfilment produces displeasure. H
ere it is important to observe that pleasure or displeasure depend only upon
the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of striving. The striving itself can by no
means be regarded as displeasure. Therefore, if it so happens that in the m
oment a striving is fulfilled, immediately a new one arises, I should not sa
y that the pleasure has produced displeasure in me, because in all circumsta
nces an enjoyment produces desire for its repetition, or for a new pleasure.
Here I can speak of displeasure only when this desire runs up against the i
mpossibility of its fulfilment. Even when an experienced enjoyment produces
in me the demand for the experience of a greater or more refined pleasure, I
can speak of a displeasure being produced by the previous pleasure only at
the moment when the means of experiencing the greater or more refined pleasu
re fail me. Only when displeasure follows enjoyment as a natural law, for ex
ample when woman's sexual enjoyment is followed by the suffering of childbir
th and the nursing of children, is it possible to regard the enjoyment as th
e source of pain. If striving as such called forth displeasure, then the rem
oval of striving would be accompanied by pleasure. But the opposite is the c
ase. When the content of our life lacks striving, boredom is the result, and
this is connected with displeasure. And as the striving naturally may last
a long time before it attains fulfilment, and as it is satisfied with the ho
pe of fulfilment meanwhile, it must be acknowledged that displeasure has not
hing to do with striving as such, but depends solely on its non-fulfilment.
Schopenhauer, then, is wrong in any case in regarding desire or striving (th
e will) as such, to be a source of pain.
In reality, even the opposite is correct. Striving (desire), as such, gives
pleasure. Who does not know the enjoyment caused by the hope of a remote but
intensely desired aim? This joy is the companion of all labor, the fruits o
f which will be ours only in the future. This pleasure is quite independent
of the attainment of the aim. Then when the aim is attained, to the pleasure
of striving is added that of the fulfilment as something new. Should someon
e now say: To the displeasure of a non-fulfilled aim is added that of disapp
ointed hope, and in the end this makes the displeasure of non-fulfilment gre
ater than the awaited pleasure of fulfilment, then the answer would be: Even
the opposite could be the case; the recollection of past enjoyment, at the
time when the desire was still not satisfied, will just as often act as cons
olation for the displeasure of non-fulfilment. In the moment of shattered ho
pes, one who exclaims, I have done what I could! proves this assertion. The
blessed feeling of having tried one's best is overlooked by those who say of
every unsatisfied desire that not only has the pleasure of fulfilment not a
risen, but also the enjoyment of desiring has been destroyed.
The fulfilment of a desire calls forth pleasure and its non-fulfilment, disp
leasure. From this must not be concluded that pleasure means satisfaction of
a desire, displeasure means its non-satisfaction. Both pleasure and displea
sure may also appear in a being where they are not the result of desire. Ill
ness is displeasure for which there has been no desire. One who maintains th
at illness is an unsatisfied desire for health, makes the mistake of regardi
ng the obvious but unconscious wish, not to be ill, as a positive desire. Wh
en someone receives a legacy from a rich relative of whose existence he had
no notion, this event gives him pleasure without any preceding desire.
Therefore, one who sets out to investigate whether the balance is on the sid
e of pleasure or of displeasure, must bring into the account the pleasure of
desiring, the pleasure of the fulfilment of desire, and those pleasures whi
ch come to us without any striving on our part. On the debit side of our acc
ount-sheet would have to be entered the displeasure of boredom, the displeas
ure of unfulfilled striving, and, lastly, displeasures that come without bei
ng preceded by any desire. To the last kind belongs also the displeasure cau
sed by work which is not self-chosen but is forced upon us.
Now the question arises: What is the right means of estimating the balance
between debit and credit? Eduard von Hartmann is of the opinion that reason
is able to establish this. However he also says: "Pain and pleasure exist on
ly insofar as they are felt."59 From this statement it would follow that the
re is no other yardstick for pleasure than the subjective one of feeling. I
must feel whether the sum of my feelings of displeasure, compared with my fe
elings of pleasure, leaves me with a balance of joy or of pain. But disregar
ding this, Hartmann maintains that:
"Even if the life-value of every being can be estimated only according to it
s own subjective measure, this is not to say that every being is able to cal
culate, from all that influences its life, the correct algebraic sum or, in
other words, that its final judgment of its own life, in regard to its subje
ctive experiences, is correct."
This, however, only means that rational judgment is still made to estimate t
he value of feeling. [footnote: One who wants to calculate whether the sum t
otal of pleasure or of displeasure is the greater, overlooks that he is calc
ulating something which is never experienced. Feeling does not calculate, an
d what matters for a real estimation of life is true experience, not the res
ult of an imagined calculation.]
One whose view more or less inclines in the direction of thinkers like Eduar
d von Hartmann may believe that in order to arrive at a correct valuation of
life he must clear out of the way those factors which falsify our judgment
about the balance of pleasure or displeasure. There are two ways in which he
can do this. One way is by showing that our desires (urges, will) act distu
rbingly in our sober judgment of our feeling-values. While, for example, we
should tell ourselves that sexual enjoyment is a source of evil, the fact th
at the sexual instinct is very strong in us misleads us into anticipating a
pleasure far greater than in fact occurs. We want to enjoy, and therefore wi
ll not admit to ourselves that we suffer through the enjoyment. Another way
is to subject feelings to criticism, and attempt to prove that the objects t
o which feelings attach themselves are revealed as illusions by the insight
of reason, then are destroyed the moment our continually growing intelligenc
e recognizes the illusion.
He can reason out the situation in the following way. If an ambitious person
wants to make clear to himself whether, up to the moment of making this cal
culation, pleasure or displeasure has occupied the greater part of his life,
he must free himself from two sources of error before passing judgment. As
he is ambitious, this fundamental feature of his character will make him see
the pleasures of recognition of his achievements as larger, and the hurts s
uffered through being slighted as smaller than they are. At the time he suff
ered from being slighted he felt it just because he was ambitious, but in re
collection this appears in a milder light, whereas the pleasures of recognit
ion to which he is so very susceptible leave a deeper impression. Now it is
of real benefit for an ambitious person that this is so. The deception dimin
ishes his feeling of displeasure in the moment of self-observation. Neverthe
less, his judgment will be misled. The sufferings, over which a veil is draw
n, he really did experience in all their intensity, and therefore he really
gives them a wrong valuation on his balance-sheet of life. In order to come
to a correct judgment, an ambitious person would have to get rid of his ambi
tion during the time he is making his calculation. He would have to consider
his life up to that point without placing distorting glasses before his min
d's eye. Otherwise he is like a merchant who, in making up his books, also e
nters his own business zeal on the income side.
He could go even further. He could say: The ambitious man must also make cle
ar to himself that the recognition he pursues is something valueless. Throug
h his own effort, or with the help of others, he must come to see that for a
sensible person recognition by others counts little, since one can always b
e sure that
"In all matters which are not vital questions of evolution or are already fi
nally settled by science, the majority is wrong and the minority right." "Wh
oever makes ambition his lodestar, puts the happiness of his life at the mer
cy of an unreliable judgment."60
If the ambitious person admits all this to himself, he will have to recogniz
e as illusion, not only everything his ambition caused him to regard as real
ity, but also the feelings attached to the illusions. For this reason it cou
ld then be said: From the balance sheet of life-values must also be erased t
hose feelings of pleasure that have been produced by illusions; what then re
mains represents, free of all illusions, the totality of pleasure in life, a
nd this, in contrast to the totality of displeasure, is so small that life i
s no joy and non-existence is preferable to existence.
While it is quite obvious that the deception caused by the interference of
ambition leads to a false result when making up the account of pleasure, wha
t is said about the recognition of the illusory character of the objects of
not only everything pleasure must nonetheless be challenged. To eliminate fr
om the balance-sheet all pleasurable feelings connected with actual or suppo
sed illusions would positively falsify it. For the ambitious person did genu
inely enjoy being appreciated by the multitude, quite irrespective of whethe
r later he or someone else recognizes this appreciation as illusion. The ple
asure already enjoyed is not diminished in the least by such recognition. Th
e elimination of all such "illusory" feelings from life's balance-sheet, far
from making our judgment about feelings more correct, actually eliminates f
rom life feelings which were genuinely present.
And why should these feelings be eliminated? One possessing them derives ple
asure from them; one who has overcome them, gains through the experiences of
self-conquest (not through the vain emotion, What a noble fellow I am! but
through the objective sources of pleasure which lie in the self-conquest) a
pleasure which is indeed spiritualized, but no less significant for that. If
feelings are erased from the balance-sheet because they attached themselves
to objects which later are revealed as illusions, then life's value is made
dependent not on the quantity, but on the quality of pleasure, and this, in
turn, on the value of the objects which cause the pleasure. If I set out to
determine the value of life by the quantity of pleasure or displeasure it b
rings, then I have no right to presuppose something else by which to determi
ne first the qualitative value of pleasure. If I say I will compare the amou
nt of pleasure with the amount of displeasure and see which is greater, then
I must also bring into the account all pleasure and displeasure in their ac
tual quantities, regardless whether they are based on illusions or not. To a
scribe to a pleasure which rests on illusion a lesser value for life than to
one which can be justified by reason, is to make the value of life dependen
t on factors other than pleasure.
Someone estimating pleasure as less valuable when it is attached to a worthl
ess object, is like a merchant who enters in his accounts the considerable p
rofit of a toy-factory at a quarter of the actual amount because the factory
produces playthings for children.
When it is only a matter of weighing pleasure against displeasure, the illus
ory character of the objects of some pleasures must be left out of the pictu
re altogether.
The rational consideration of the quantities of pleasure and displeasure pro
duced by life, which Hartmann recommends, has led us as far as knowing how t
o set up the account, that is, to knowing what we have to put down on each s
ide of our balance sheet. But how are we to make the actual calculations? Is
reason also capable of determining the balance?
The merchant has made a mistake in his account if the calculated balance doe
s not agree with the profit which has demonstrably been enjoyed from the bus
iness or which can still be expected. The philosopher, too, will undoubtedly
have made a mistake in his judgment if the calculated surplus of pleasure o
r, as the case may be, of displeasure, cannot be proved by actual sentiments
.
For the moment I shall not go into the account of those pessimists who base
their world view on rational estimation; but a person who is to decide wheth
er or not to carry on the business of life will first demand proof that the
calculated surplus of displeasure exists.
Here we touch the point where reason is not in a position to determine on it
s own the surplus of pleasure or of displeasure, but where it must point to
this surplus in life in the form of perception. For reality is attainable fo
r man not through concept alone, but through the inter-penetration, mediated
by thinking, of concept and perception (and a feeling is a perception) (cp.
pp. 153 ff.). A merchant, too, will give up his business only when the loss
of income, calculated by his accountant, is confirmed by the facts. If this
is not the case, he will let the accountant go through the books once more.
And in regard to life, man will do exactly the same. If the philosopher wan
ts to show him that displeasure is far greater than pleasure, and if he has
not felt it to be so, he will reply: You have gone astray in your brooding;
think things through once more. But if there comes a time in a business when
such losses are really present that no credit any longer suffices to meet t
he claims, then the result will be bankruptcy, even though the merchant may
have avoided keeping himself informed about his affairs by means of accounts
. Similarly, if there comes a time when the quantity of displeasure a man su
ffers is so great that no hope (credit) of future pleasure could carry him t
hrough the pain, then this would lead to bankruptcy of life's business.
However, the number of suicides is relatively small in proportion to the nu
mber of those who bravely live on. Very few people give up the business of l
ife because of the displeasure involved. What follows from this? Either that
it is not correct to say that the amount of displeasure is greater than the
amount of pleasure, or that we do not make our continuation of life at all
dependent upon the amount of pleasure or displeasure we feel.
The pessimist, Eduard von Hartmann, in a quite extraordinary manner reaches
the conclusion that life is valueless because it contains more pain than ple
asure, and yet he maintains the necessity of carrying it through. This neces
sity lies in the fact that the world purpose mentioned above (p. 222) can be
achieved only through the ceaseless, devoted labor of human beings. So long
as men still pursue their egoistic desires they are useless for such selfle
ss labor. Not until they have convinced themselves through experience and re
ason that the enjoyments of life pursued out of egoism are unattainable, do
they devote themselves to their real task. In this way the pessimistic convi
ction is supposed to be a source of selflessness. An education based on pess
imism is meant to exterminate egoism by convincing men of its hopelessness.
Of such a moral world view, which, from recognition of pessimism, hopes to a
chieve devotion to non-egoistical aims in life, it cannot be said that it re
ally overcomes egoism in the true sense of the word. Moral ideas are suppose
d to be strong enough to take hold of the will only when man has recognized
that selfish striving after pleasure cannot lead to any satisfaction. Man, w
hose selfishness desires the grapes of pleasure, finds them sour because he
cannot reach them; he turns his back on them and devotes himself to an unsel
fish life. According to the opinion of pessimists, moral ideals are not stro
ng enough to overcome egoism, but they establish their rulership on the grou
nd which recognition of the hopelessness of egoism has first cleared for the
m.
If in accordance with their natural disposition human beings strove after pl
easure which they could not possibly attain, then annihilation of existence
and redemption through non-existence would be the only rational goal. And if
one accepts the view that the real bearer of the pain of the world is God,
it follows that the task of men consists in helping to bring about the salva
tion of God. To commit suicide does not advance, but hinders, the accomplish
ment of this aim. God must have created men wisely for the sole purpose of b
ringing about His salvation through their action. Otherwise creation would b
e purposeless. And such a view of the world envisages extra-human purposes.
Every one of us has to perform his own definite task in the general work of
salvation. If he withdraws from the task by suicide, another has to do the w
ork which was intended for him. Someone else must bear the agony of existenc
e in his place. And since in every being it is, fundamentally, God who is th
e ultimate bearer of all pain, it follows that the suicide does not in the l
east diminish the quantity of God's pain, but rather imposes upon God the ad
ditional difficulty of creating a substitute to take over the task.
All this presupposes that pleasure is the standard of life's value. Now life
manifests itself through a number of craving (needs). If the value of life
depended on whether it brought more pleasure than displeasure, a craving whi
ch brought a surplus of displeasure to its owner, would have to be called va
lueless. Let us examine craving and pleasure, in order to see whether or not
craving can be measured by pleasure. And lest we give rise to the suspicion
that life does not begin for us below the level of the "aristocratic intell
ect," we shall begin our examination with a "purely animal" need: hunger.
Hunger arises when our organs are unable to continue their proper function w
ithout a fresh supply of substance. What a hungry man aims at, in the first
place, is to have his hunger stilled. As soon as the supply of nourishment h
as reached the point where hunger ceases, everything that the food-instinct
craves has been attained. The enjoyment connected with satiety consists, to
begin with, in the removal of the pain which is caused by hunger. Also to th
e mere food-instinct a further need is added. Man does not merely desire to
overcome the disturbance in the functioning of his organs by the consumption
of food, or to get rid of the pain of hunger: he seeks to accompany this wi
th pleasurable sensations of taste. When he feels hungry and is within half
an hour of an enjoyable meal, he may even avoid spoiling his enjoyment of th
e better food by refusing inferior food which might satisfy his hunger soone
r. He needs hunger in order to obtain the full enjoyment from his meal. In t
his way hunger becomes a cause of pleasure for him at the same time. If all
the hunger in the world could be satisfied, then the total amount of enjoyme
nt due to the need for nourishment would come about. To this would have to b
e added the special pleasure which gourmets attain by cultivating the sensit
iveness of their taste-nerves beyond the usual measure.
This amount of enjoyment would have the greatest value possible if no aspect
of this kind of enjoyment remained unsatisfied, and if with the enjoyment a
certain amount of displeasure did not have to be accepted into the bargain.
The view of modern natural science is that nature produces more life than it
can sustain, that is, nature produces more hunger than it is able to satisf
y. The surplus of life produced must perish in pain in the struggle for exis
tence. It is granted that at every moment of the world process, the needs of
life are greater than the corresponding available means of satisfaction, an
d the enjoyment of life is thereby impaired. But the individual enjoyments a
ctually present are not in the least reduced thereby. Wherever a desire is s
atisfied, there the corresponding amount of pleasure is also present, even t
hough in the creature itself which desires, or in its fellow-creatures, a la
rge number of unsatisfied cravings exist. What is thereby diminished is not
the quantity, but the value of the enjoyment of life. If only a part of the
needs of a living creature find satisfaction, the creature experiences enjoy
ment accordingly. This has a lesser value the smaller it is in proportion to
the total demands of life in the sphere of the desire in question. We might
represent this value as a fraction, of which the numerator is the enjoyment
actually experienced and the denominator is the sum total of needs. This fr
action has the value 1 when the numerator and the denominator are equal, i.e
., when all needs are fully satisfied. The fraction becomes greater than 1 w
hen a creature experiences more pleasure than its desires demand. It becomes
smaller than 1 when the amount of enjoyment falls short of the sum total of
desires. But the fraction can never be nought so long as the numerator has
any value at all, however small. If a man were to make up a final account be
fore his death, and thought of the amount of enjoyment connected with a part
icular craving (e.g. hunger) as being distributed over the whole of his life
with all the demands made by this craving, then the value of the pleasure e
xperienced might perhaps be very small, but it could never be nil. If the qu
antity of enjoyment remains constant, then with every increase in the needs
of the living being the value of the pleasure diminishes. The same is true f
or the totality of life in nature. The greater the number of living beings i
n proportion to those able to fully satisfy their cravings, the smaller is t
he average pleasure-value of life. The shares in life enjoyment, made out to
us in the form of instincts, become less valuable in proportion as we canno
t expect to cash them at their full face value. If I get enough to eat for t
hree days and then have to go hungry for three days, the enjoyment during th
e three days when I do eat is not thereby diminished. But I have to think of
it as distributed over six days, and this reduces its value for my food ins
tinct by half. The same applies to the quantity of pleasure in relation to t
he degree of my need. If I am hungry enough for two sandwiches and can have
only one, the enjoyment gained from it has only half the value it would have
had if after I had eaten it my hunger had been stilled. This is how the val
ue of a pleasure is determined in life. It is measured by the needs of life.
Our desire is the yardstick; pleasure is what is measured. The enjoyment of
eating has a value only because hunger is present, and it attains a value o
f a specific degree through the proportion it bears to the degree of the hun
ger present.
Unfulfilled demands of our life throw their shadow even upon desires which
have been satisfied, and impair the value of enjoyable hours. But one can al
so speak of the present value of a feeling of pleasure. This value is the mo
re insignificant, the less the pleasure is in proportion to the duration and
intensity of our desire.
An amount of pleasure reaches its full value for us when its duration and de
gree exactly coincide with our desire. An amount of pleasure which is smalle
r than our desire diminishes the value of pleasure; a greater amount produce
s a surplus which has not been demanded and which is felt as pleasure only s
o long as we are able to increase our desire during the enjoyment. If we are
not able to increase our demand in order to keep pace with the increasing p
leasure, then the pleasure turns into displeasure. The thing that otherwise
would satisfy us now assails us without our wanting it, and we suffer under
it. This is proof that pleasure has value for us only so long as we can meas
ure it by our desires. An excess of pleasurable feeling turns into pain. Thi
s may be observed especially in people whose desire for a particular kind of
pleasure is very small. In people whose desire for food is dulled, eating r
eadily produces nausea. This too shows that the desire is the yardstick for
measuring the value of pleasure.
Here pessimism could say: The unsatisfied craving for food brings not only t
he displeasure of lost enjoyment, but also positive pain, torment and misery
into the world. In this he can point to the untold misery of people who sta
rve, and to the amount of displeasure such people suffer indirectly through
lack of food. And if he wants to extend the assertion to the rest of nature,
he can point to the torment of animals that starve to death at certain time
s of the year. The pessimist maintains that these evils far outweigh the amo
unt of enjoyment which the food-instinct brings into the world.
There is no doubt that one can compare pleasure and displeasure, and can det
ermine the surplus of the one or the other, as is done in the case of profit
and loss. But when the pessimist believes that there is a surplus on the si
de of displeasure and that from this one can conclude that life is valueless
, he already makes a mistake, insofar as he makes a calculation that is not
made in actual life.
Our desire, in each instance, is directed to a definite object. The value o
f the pleasure of satisfaction will, as we have seen, be the greater, the gr
eater the amount of pleasure, in relation to the degree of our desire.[footn
ote: We disregard here the instance where excessive increase in pleasure tur
ns it into displeasure.] But upon the degree of our desire also depends how
great is the amount of displeasure we are willing to accept in order to achi
eve the pleasure. We compare the quantity of displeasure not with the quanti
ty of pleasure, but with the intensity of our desire. If someone finds great
pleasure in eating, by reason of his enjoyment in better times he will find
it easier to bear a period of hunger than will someone for whom eating is n
o enjoyment. A woman who desires a child compares the joy of possessing the
child, not with the amount of displeasure due to pregnancy, childbirth, care
s of nursing, etc., but with her desire to have the child.
We never want a certain quantity of pleasure in the abstract, but a concrete
satisfaction in a quite definite way. When we want a pleasure which must be
satisfied by a particular object or a particular sensation, it will not sat
isfy us if we are offered some other object or some other sensation, even th
ough they give the same amount of pleasure. One desirous of food cannot subs
titute the pleasure this would give him by a pleasure equally great but prod
uced by a walk. Only if our desire were, quite generally, for a certain quan
tity of pleasure, would it have to die away at once if this pleasure were un
attainable except at the price of an even greater quantity of displeasure. B
ut because we aim toward a particular kind of satisfaction, we experience th
e pleasure of realization even when we have to bear a much greater displeasu
re along with it. The instincts of living creatures tend in definite directi
ons and aim at definite goals, and for this reason we cannot set down as an
equivalent factor in our calculations the amount of displeasure that must be
endured on the way to the goal. Provided the desire is sufficiently intense
to still be present in some degree after having overcome the displeasure -
however great that may be - then the pleasure of satisfaction can still be t
asted to the full. The desire, therefore, does not measure the pain directly
against the pleasure achieved, but indirectly by relating its own intensity
to that of the displeasure. The question is not whether the pleasure to be
gained is greater than the displeasure, but whether the desire for the goal
is greater than the opposition of the displeasure involved. If the oppositio
n is greater than the desire, then the desire yields to the inevitable, weak
ens, and strives no further. Since our demand is always for some quite speci
fic kind of satisfaction, the pleasure connected with it acquires significan
ce for us in such a way that once we have achieved satisfaction, we need tak
e the quantity of displeasure into account only insofar as it has reduced th
e intensity of our desire. If I am passionately fond of beautiful views, I n
ever calculate the amount of pleasure the view from the mountain-top gives m
e as compared directly with the displeasure of the toilsome ascent and desce
nt, but I reflect whether, after having overcome all difficulties, my desire
for the view will still be sufficiently intense. Consideration of pleasure
and pain can lead to a result only indirectly in relation to the intensity o
f the desire. Therefore the question is not at all whether there is a surplu
s of pleasure or of displeasure, but whether the desire for the pleasure is
strong enough to overcome the displeasure.
A proof of the correctness of this view is the fact that we put a higher val
ue on pleasure when it must be purchased at the price of great displeasure,
than when it simply falls into our lap like a gift from heaven. When sufferi
ngs and misery have toned down our desire and yet our aim is attained, then
the pleasure, in proportion to the remaining quantity of desire, is all the
greater. And as I have shown (p. 235), this proportion represents the value
of the pleasure. A further proof is given in the fact that all living beings
(including man) seek satisfaction for their cravings as long as they are ab
le to bear the opposing pain and agony. The struggle for existence is but a
consequence of this fact. All existing life strives for fulfilment, and only
that part gives up the fight in which the desire has been suffocated by the
power of the assailing difficulties. Each living being seeks food until lac
k of food destroys its life. Man, too, lays hands on himself only when he be
lieves (rightly or wrongly) that he is not able to attain the aims in life w
hich to him are worth while. As long as he still believes in the possibility
of attaining what in his view is worth striving for, he will fight against
all suffering and pain. Philosophy would first have to convince man that the
element of will has sense only when the pleasure is greater than the disple
asure, for it is man's nature to strive to attain the objects of his desire
if he is able to bear the necessary displeasure involved, be it ever so grea
t. The above mentioned philosophy would be mistaken, because it would make t
he human will dependent on a factor (surplus of pleasure over displeasure) w
hich is fundamentally foreign to man's nature. The actual yardstick for meas
uring will is desire, and the latter persists as long as it can. One can com
pare the calculation that is made in actual life, - not the one an abstract
philosophy makes concerning the question of pleasure and pain connected with
the satisfaction of a desire - with the following. If when buying a certain
quantity of apples, I am forced to take twice as many bad ones as good ones
because the seller wants to clear his stock, then I shall not hesitate for
one moment to accept the bad apples as well if the few good ones are worth s
o much to me that, in addition to their purchase price, I am also prepared t
o bear the expense of disposing of the bad ones. This example illustrates th
e relation between the amounts of pleasure and displeasure that arise throug
h an instinct. I determine the value of the good apples not by subtracting t
he sum of the good ones from that of the bad ones, but by whether the good o
nes retain any value for me despite the presence of the bad ones.
Just as I leave the bad apples out of account in my enjoyment of the good on
es, so I give myself up to the satisfaction of a desire after having shaken
off the unavoidable pain.
Even if pessimism were correct in its assertion that there is more displeas
ure than pleasure in the world, this would have no influence on the will, si
nce living beings would still strive after what pleasure remains. The empiri
cal proof that pain outweighs joy, if such proof could be given, would certa
inly be effective for showing the futility of the school of philosophy that
sees the value of life in a surplus of pleasure (Eudaemonism).61 It would no
t, however, be suitable for showing that will in general is irrational, for
will does not seek a surplus of pleasure, but seeks the amount of pleasure t
hat remains after removing the displeasure. And this always appears as a goa
l worth striving for.
Attempts have been made to refute pessimism by asserting that it is impossib
le by calculation to determine the surplus of pleasure or of displeasure in
the world. The possibility of any calculation depends on the comparability o
f the things to be calculated in respect to their quantity. Every displeasur
e and every pleasure has a definite quantity (intensity and duration). Furth
er, we can compare pleasurable feelings of different kinds with one another,
at least approximately, with regard to their quantity. We know whether we d
erive more pleasure from a good cigar or from a good joke. No objection can
be raised against the comparability of different kinds of pleasures and disp
leasures in respect to their quantity. The investigator who sets himself the
task of determining the surplus of pleasure or displeasure in the world, st
arts from presuppositions which are undeniably legitimate. One may declare t
he conclusions of pessimism to be mistaken, but one cannot doubt that quanti
ties of pleasure and displeasure can be scientifically estimated, and the ba
lance of pleasure determined thereby. But it is incorrect to maintain that t
he result of this calculation has any consequence for the human will. The ca
ses in which we really make the value of our activity dependent on whether p
leasure or displeasure shows a surplus, are those in which the objects towar
d which our activity is directed are indifferent to us. When it is only a qu
estion of whether after my work I am to amuse myself by a game or by light c
onversation, and if I am completely indifferent what I do for this purpose,
I then ask myself: What gives me the greatest surplus of pleasure? And I def
initely refrain from an activity if the scales incline toward the side of di
spleasure. When buying a toy for a child we would consider what will give hi
m the greatest pleasure. In all other cases we are not determined exclusivel
y by considerations of the balance of pleasure.
Therefore, when pessimistic philosophers of ethics believe that by showing d
ispleasure to be present in greater quantity than pleasure, they are prepari
ng the way for selfless devotion toward cultural work, they do not realize t
hat by its very nature the human will is not influenced by this knowledge. H
uman striving directs itself to the measure of possible satisfaction after a
ll difficulties have been overcome. Hope of this satisfaction is the very fo
undation of human activity. The work of each individual and of the totality
of cultural work springs from this hope. Pessimistic ethics believes that it
must present the pursuit of happiness as an impossibility for man, in order
that he may devote himself to his proper moral tasks. But these moral tasks
are nothing but the concrete natural and spiritual cravings, and their sati
sfaction is striven for, despite the displeasure involved. The pursuit of ha
ppiness, which the pessimist wants to exterminate, does not exist at all. Ra
ther, the tasks which man has to fulfil he fulfils because from the depth of
his being he wills to fulfil them when he has truly recognized their nature
. Pessimistic ethics maintains that man can devote himself to what he recogn
izes as his life's task, only when he has given up the pursuit of pleasure.
But there are no ethics that can invent life-tasks other than the realizatio
n of the satisfactions demanded by man's desires, and the fulfilment of his
moral ideals. No ethics can take from him the pleasure he has in the fulfilm
ent of what he desires. When the pessimist says: Do not strive after pleasur
e, for you can never attain it, strive for what you recognize to be your tas
k, then the answer is: It is inherent in human nature to do just this, and i
t is the invention of a philosophy gone astray when it is maintained that ma
n strives only for happiness. He strives for the satisfaction of what his be
ing demands, and its fulfilment is his pleasure; he has in mind the concrete
objects of this striving, not some abstract "happiness." When pessimistic e
thics demands: Strive not after pleasure, but after the attainment of what y
ou recognize to be your life's task, it lays its finger on the very thing th
at, through his own nature, man wants. He does not need to be turned inside
out by philosophy, he does not need to discard his human nature before he ca
n be moral. Morality lies in striving for an aim that has been recognized as
justified; it lies in human nature to pursue it so long as the displeasure
connected with it does not extinguish the desire for it altogether. And this
is the nature of all real will. Ethics does not depend on the extermination
of all striving after pleasure in order that bloodless abstract ideas can s
et up their control where they are not opposed by a strong longing for enjoy
ment of life; ethics depends rather on that strength will has when it is car
ried by ideal intuitions; it achieves its aim even though the path be full o
f thorns.
Moral ideals spring from the moral imagination of man. Their attainment dep
ends upon whether his desire for them is strong enough to overcome pain and
suffering. They are his intuitions, the driving forces spanned by his spirit
; he wills them, because their attainment is his highest pleasure. He needs
no ethics first to forbid him to strive for pleasure and then to prescribe t
o him what he ought to strive for. Of himself, he will strive for moral idea
ls when his moral imagination is active enough to impart to him intuitions t
hat give strength to his will and enable him to carry them through, despite
the obstacles present in his own organization, to which necessary displeasur
e also belongs.
If a man strives for sublimely great ideals, it is because they are the cont
ent of his own nature and their realization will bring him a joy compared wi
th which the pleasure, derived from the satisfaction of their ordinary cravi
ngs by those who lack ideals, is of little significance. Idealists revel spi
ritually in translating their ideals into reality.
Anyone who wants to exterminate the pleasure in the fulfilment of human desi
res will first have to make man a slave who acts, not because he wants to, b
ut only because he ought to. For the attainment of what has been willed give
s pleasure. What we call goodness is not what a man ought but what he wills
to do when he unfolds the fulness of his true human nature. Anyone who does
not acknowledge this must first drive out of man all that man himself wills,
and then prescribe to him from outside what content he is to give his will.
Man values the fulfilment of a desire because the desire springs from his ow
n nature. Achievement has its value because it has been willed. If one denie
s value to the aims of man's own will, then worth while aims must be taken f
rom something that man does not will.
Ethics based on pessimism arises from a disregard for moral imagination. Onl
y someone who considers the individual human ego incapable of giving a conte
nt to its striving would see the totality of will as a longing for pleasure.
A man without imagination creates no moral ideas. They must be given to him
. Physical nature sees to it that he strives to satisfy his lower desires. B
ut to the development of the whole man belong also desires that arise from t
he spirit. Only if one takes the view that man has no such spiritual desires
can one maintain that he should receive them from outside. And then it woul
d also be justifiable to say that it is man's duty to do what he does not wi
ll. All ethics which demand of man that he should suppress his will in order
to fulfil tasks that he does not will, reckon not with the whole man, but w
ith one in whom the faculty of spiritual desire is lacking. For a man who is
harmoniously developed, the so-called ideas of what is "right" are not outs
ide but within the sphere of his own nature. Moral action does not consist i
n extermination of one-sided self-will, but in the full development of human
nature. One considering moral ideals to be attainable only if man extermina
tes his own will, does not know that these ideals are willed by man just as
much as the satisfaction of so-called animal instincts.
It cannot be denied that the views outlined here can easily be misunderstood
. Immature persons without moral imagination like to look upon the instincts
of their undeveloped natures as the full content of humanity, and to reject
all moral ideas which they have not produced, in order that they may "live
themselves out" without restriction. But it is obvious that what holds good
for a fully developed human being does not apply to one who is only half-dev
eloped. One who still has to be brought by education to the point where his
moral nature breaks through the shell of his lower passions, cannot lay clai
m to what applies to a man who is mature. Here there is no intention to outl
ine what an undeveloped man requires to be taught, but rather to show what h
uman nature includes when it has come to full maturity. For this is also to
prove the possibility of freedom, which manifests itself, not in actions don
e under constraint of body or soul, but in actions sustained by spiritual in
tuitions.
The fully mature man gives himself his value. He neither strives for pleasur
e, which is given to him as a gift of grace either from nature or from the C
reator, nor does he merely fulfil what he recognizes as abstract duty after
he has divested himself of the desire for pleasure. He does what he wants to
do, that is, he acts in accordance with his ethical intuitions, and in the
attainment of what he wants he feels the true enjoyment of life. He determin
es life's value by the ratio between what he attains and what he attempts. E
thics which puts "you ought" in the place of "I will," mere duty in the plac
e of inclination, determines man's value by the ratio between what duty dema
nds of him and what he fulfils. It applies a standard to man that is not app
licable to his nature. - The view developed here refers man back to himself.
It recognizes as the true value of life only what each individual himself r
egards as such according to what he desires. This view accepts neither a val
ue of life not recognized by the individual, nor a purpose of life which has
not sprung from the individual. In the individual who is capable of true se
lf knowledge it recognizes someone who is his own master and the assessor of
his own value.
Addition to the Revised Edition, 1918. What is presented in this chapter can
be misunderstood if one clings to the apparent objection that the will is s
imply the irrational factor in man and that this must be proved to him becau
se then he will realize that his ethical striving must consist in working to
ward ultimate emancipation from the will. An apparent objection of this kind
was brought against me by a competent critic who stated that it is the busi
ness of the philosopher to make good what the thoughtlessness of animals and
most men fail to do, namely, to strike a proper balance in life's account.
But in making this objection he does not recognize the real issue: If freedo
m is to be attained, then the will in human nature must be carried by intuit
ive thinking; at the same time it is true that an impulse of will may also b
e determined by factors other than intuition, but morality and its worth can
be found only in the free realization of intuitions flowing from the nature
of true manhood. Ethical individualism is well able to present morality in
its full dignity, for it is not of the opinion that the truly moral is broug
ht about by conforming to an external rule, but is only what comes about thr
ough man when he develops his moral will as a member of his total being, so
that to do what is immoral appears to him as a stunting and crippling of his
nature.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
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--
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