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发信人: Christy (风中的绿叶), 信区: Reading
标 题: Kant's Basic Epistemological Question IV(转载)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年11月29日23:30:27 星期四), 站内信件
【 以下文字转载自 Philosophy 讨论区 】
【 原文由 Christy 所发表 】
Truth and Knowledge
Kant's Basic Epistemological Question
Kant is generally considered to be the founder of epistemology in the modern
sense. However, the history of philosophy before Kant contains a number of
investigations which must be considered as more than mere beginnings of such
a science. Volkelt points to this in his standard work on epistemology, say
ing that critical treatments of this science began as early as Locke. Howeve
r, discussions which to-day come under the heading of epistemology can be fo
und as far back as in the philosophy of ancient Greece. Kant then went into
every aspect of all the relevant problems, and innumerable thinkers followin
g in his footsteps went over the ground so thoroughly that in their works or
in Kant's are to be found repetitions of all earlier attempts to solve thes
e problems. Thus where a factual rather than a historical study of epistemol
ogy is concerned, there is no danger of omitting anything important if one c
onsiders only the period since the appearance of Kant's Critique of Pure Rea
son. All earlier achievements in this field have been repeated since Kant.
Kant's fundamental question concerning epistemology is: How are synthetical
judgments a priori possible? Let us consider whether or not this question is
free of presuppositions. Kant formulates it because he believes that we can
arrive at certain, unconditional knowledge only if we can prove the validit
y of synthetical judgments a priori. He says:
“In the solution of the above problem is comprehended at the same time the
possibility of the use of pure reason in the foundation and construction of
all sciences which contain theoretical knowledge a priori of objects.” “Up
on the solution of this problem depends the existence or downfall of the sci
ence of metaphysics.”
Is this problem as Kant formulates it, free of all presuppositions? Not at a
ll, for it says that a system of absolute, certain knowledge can be erected
only on a foundation of judgments that are synthetical and acquired independ
ently of all experience. Kant calls a judgment “synthetical” where the con
cept of the predicate brings to the concept of the subject something which l
ies completely outside the subject — “although it stands in connection wit
h the subject,” by contrast, in analytical judgment, the predicate merely e
xpresses something which is already contained (though hidden) in the subject
. It would be out of place here to go into the extremely acute objections ma
de by Johannes Rehmke to this classification of judgments. For our present p
urpose it will suffice to recognize that we can arrive at true knowledge onl
y through judgments which add one concept to another in such a way that the
content of the second was not already contained, at least for us, in the fir
st. If, with Kant, we wish to call this category of judgment synthetical, th
en it must be agreed that knowledge in the form of judgment can only be atta
ined when the connection between predicate and subject is synthetical in thi
s sense. But the position is different in regard to the second part of Kant'
s question, which demands that these judgments must be acquired a priori, i.
e., independent of all experience. After all, it is conceivable that such ju
dgments might not exist at all. A theory of knowledge must leave open, to be
gin with, the question of whether we can arrive at a judgment solely by mean
s of experience, or by some other means as well. Indeed, to an unprejudiced
mind it must seem that for something to be independent of experience in this
way is impossible. For whatever object we are concerned to know, we must be
come aware of it directly and individually, that is, it must become experien
ce. We acquire mathematical judgment too, only through direct experience of
particular single examples. This is the case even if we regard them, with Ot
to Liebmann as rooted in a certain faculty of our consciousness. In this cas
e, we must say: This or that proposition must be valid, for, if its truth we
re denied, consciousness would be denied as well; but we could only grasp it
s content, as knowledge, through experience in exactly the same way as we ex
perience a process in outer nature. Irrespective of whether the content of s
uch a proposition contains elements which guarantee its absolute validity or
whether it is certain for other reasons, the fact remains that we cannot ma
ke it our own unless at some stage it becomes experience for us. This is the
first objection to Kant's question.
The second consists in the fact that at the beginning of a theoretical inves
tigation of knowledge, one ought not to maintain that no valid and absolute
knowledge can be obtained by means of experience. For it is quite conceivabl
e that experience itself could contain some characteristic feature which wou
ld guarantee the validity of insight gained by means of it.
Two presuppositions are thus contained in Kant's formulation of the question
. One presupposition is that we need other means of gaining knowledge beside
s experience, and the second is that all knowledge gained through experience
is only approximately valid. It does not occur to Kant that these principle
s need proof, that they are open to doubt. They are prejudices which he simp
ly takes over from dogmatic philosophy and then uses as the basis of his cri
tical investigations. Dogmatic philosophy assumes them to be valid, and simp
ly uses them to arrive at knowledge accordingly; Kant makes the same assumpt
ions and merely inquires under what conditions they are valid. But suppose t
hey are not valid at all? In that case, the edifice of Kant's doctrine has n
o foundation whatever.
All that Kant brings forward in the five paragraphs preceding his actual for
mulation of the problem, is an attempt to prove that mathematical judgments
are synthetical (an attempt which Robert Zimmermann, if he does not refute i
t, at least shows it to be highly questionable). But the two assumptions dis
cussed above are retained as scientific prejudices. In the Critique of Pure
Reason it is said:
“Experience no doubt teaches us that this or that object is constituted in
such and such a manner, but not that it could not possibly exist otherwise.”
“Experience never exhibits strict and absolute, but only assumed and compa
rative universality (by induction).”
In Prolegomena we find it said:
“Firstly, as regards the sources of metaphysical knowledge, the very concep
tion of the latter shows that these cannot be empirical. Its principles (und
er which not merely its axioms, but also its fundamental conceptions are inc
luded) must consequently never be derived from experience, since it is not p
hysical but metaphysical knowledge, i.e., knowledge beyond experience, that
is wanted.”
And finally Kant says:
“Before all, be it observed, that proper mathematical propositions are alwa
ys judgments a priori, and not empirical, because they carry along with them
the conception of necessity, which cannot be given by experience. If this b
e demurred to, it matters not; I will then limit my assertion to pure mathem
atics, the very conception of which implies that it consists of knowledge al
together non-empirical and a priori.”
No matter where we open the Critique of Pure Reason we find that all the inv
estigations pursued in it are based on these dogmatic principles. Cohen and
Stadler attempt to prove that Kant has established the a priori nature of ma
thematical and purely scientific principles. However, all that the Critique
of Pure Reason attempts to show can be summed up as follows: Mathematics and
pure natural science are a priori sciences; from this it follows that the f
orm of all experiences must be inherent in the subject itself. Therefore, th
e only thing left that is empirically given is the material of sensations. T
his is built up into a system of experiences, the form of which is inherent
in the subject. The formal truths of a priori theories have meaning and sign
ificance only as principles which regulate the material of sensation; they m
ake experience possible, but do not go further than experience. However, the
se formal truths are the synthetical judgment a priori, and they must, as co
ndition necessary for experience, extend as far as experience itself. The Cr
itique of Pure Reason does not at all prove that mathematics and pure scienc
e are a priori sciences but only establishes their sphere of validity, pre-s
upposing that their truths are acquired independently of experience. Kant, i
n fact, avoids discussing the question of proof of the a priori sciences in
that he simply excludes that section of mathematics (see conclusion of Kant'
s last statement quoted above) where even in his own opinion the a priori na
ture is open to doubt; and he limits himself to that section where he believ
es proof can be inferred from the concepts alone. Even Johannes Volkelt find
s that:
“Kant starts from the positive assumption that a necessary and universal kn
owledge exists as an actual fact. These presuppositions which Kant never spe
cifically attempted to prove, are so contrary to a proper critical theory of
knowledge that one must seriously ask oneself whether the Critique of Pure
Reason is valid as critical epistemology.”
Volkelt does find that there are good reasons for answering this question af
firmatively, but he adds: “The critical conviction of Kant's theory of know
ledge is nevertheless seriously disturbed by this dogmatic assumption.” It
is evident from this that Volkelt, too, finds that the Critique of Pure Reas
on as a theory of knowledge, is not free of presuppositions.
O. Liebmann, Holder, Windelband, Ueberweg, Ed. v. Hartmann and Kuno Fischer,
hold essentially similar views on this point, namely, that Kant bases his w
hole argument on the assumption that knowledge of pure mathematics and natur
al science is acquired a priori.
That we acquire knowledge independently of all experience, and that the insi
ght gained from experience is of general value only to a limited extent, can
only be conclusions derived from some other investigation. These assertions
must definitely be preceded by an examination both of the nature of experie
nce and of knowledge. Examination of experience could lead to the first prin
ciple; examination of knowledge, to the second.
In reply to these criticisms of Kant's critique of reason, it could be said
that every theory of knowledge must first lead the reader to where the start
ing point, free of all presuppositions, is to be found. For what we possess
as knowledge at any moment in our life is far removed from this point, and w
e must first be led back to it artificially. In actual fact, it is a necessi
ty for every epistemologist to come to such a purely didactic arrangement co
ncerning the starting point of this science. But this must always be limited
merely to showing to what extent the starting point for cognition really is
the absolute start; it must be presented in purely self evident, analytical
sentences and, unlike Kant's argument, contain no assertions which will inf
luence the content of the subsequent discussion. It is also incumbent on the
epistemologist to show that his starting point is really free of all presup
positions. All this, however, has nothing to do with the nature of the start
ing point itself, but is quite independent of it and makes no assertions abo
ut it. Even when he begins to teach mathematics, the teacher must try to con
vince the pupil that certain truths are to be understood as axioms. But no o
ne would assert that the content of the axioms is made dependent on these pr
eliminary considerations. In exactly the same way the epistemologist must sh
ow in his introductory remarks how one can arrive at a starting point free o
f all presuppositions; yet the actual content of this starting point must be
quite independent of these considerations. However, anyone who, like Kant,
makes definite, dogmatic assertions at the very outset, is certainly very fa
r from fulfilling these conditions when he introduces his theory of knowledg
e.
--
朝华易逝残月已无痕,
锁眉略展路旁待旧人。
飘飘零落不由他乡去,
尘凡晓破方知何为真。
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