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标 题: China’s Concern over National Missile Defence
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2003年03月19日18:38:36 星期三), 站内信件
China’s Concern over National Missile Defence
By Dingli Shen
Understanding Ballistic Missile Defence
Ballistic missile defence has drawn heated debate in the international
community in the recent years. On the one hand, the US has made it a national
policy to develop a limited ballistic missile defence program, with a key
decision to be made this year regarding whether to deploy the system. On the
other hand, the US missile defence build-up has been much criticised by other
countries. It is often argued that missile defence would, if unchecked, tilt
the balance of power and therefore affect the international political and
security order.
To be honest, there is indeed a genuine concern over the proliferation of
ballistic missiles and other types of delivery means. Coupled with the
proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, ballistic missile proliferation
presents a major challenge to international security and stability. This was
manifested during the second Gulf War of 1991, when Scuds fired against Saudi
Arabia and Israel took on great psychological importance. Ever since then,
more and longer-range missile flight tests, in South Asia and Northeast Asia,
have been reported.[1] While the countries concerned may have quite
reasonable grounds to acquire missiles for their defensive purposes, such a
trend of proliferation does not bode well for global as well as regional
stability.
Ballistic missile proliferation has thus raised concern among states. There
have been three kinds of responses. First, denying the intention of those who
would seek such delivery vehicles. This would require the creation of a more
secure environment in order to reduce the incentive to acquire them. Second,
denying the missile-related technology available through transfer, if denial
of intention fails to work. Third, establishing a certain level of ballistic
missile defence as a protection against incidental and/or unauthorised
attack, or a limited intentional attack with ballistic missiles.
In this context, it is not impossible to understand the need for a limited
missile defence, especially for a global power as the United States, which
has vast overseas presence and interests, often in turn a reason to invite
attack.
In fact, the US has never given up its attempt to build various missile
defence systems. The US set out to build sentinel antiballistic-missile
program in 1967 against China’s nascent nuclear deterrent when it first came
into being.[2] For the last two decades, the US government has persistently
pursued missile defence. The Reagan Administration launched its Strategic
Defense Initiative, a land- and space-based multi-layer missile defence
system which was never successfully developed. The Bush Administration
converted the Star War dream into Global Protection Against Limited Strikes
(GPALS). The Clinton Administration has decided to continue ballistic missile
defence, with components of both National Missile Defence (NMD) and Theatre
Missile Defence (TMD).
This paper will address China’s position on missile non-proliferation
regime, and its concern on National Missile Defence. It is suggested that
the US and China should address their respective security concerns and seek a
win-win solution in missile non-proliferation and missile defence issues.
China and Missile Non-proliferation Regime
Over the last decade, China has been increasingly exposed to a
missile-proliferation-prone peripheral environment. Key neighbouring states
either have a formidable missile arsenal, a significant missile programme, a
fast developing missile capability or an alliance with a nuclear superpower.
As such, missile proliferation has clearly affected China’s international
environment.
Therefore, the PRC has taken a series of steps addressing this problem
through joining international missile non-proliferation efforts. It has been
cautious concerning the transfer of missiles, adopting strict and effective
controls over the export of missiles and related technology. Beijing has
committed to missile non-proliferation and kept its obligation.[3]
In February 1992, China committed to observing the then guidelines and
parameters of Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR).[4] With the enhanced
dialogue which emerged between China and the US in the missile area, the two
countries signed a joint statement in October 1996, reaffirming China’s
promise and obligation of not exporting ground-to-ground missiles inherently
capable of reaching a range of 300 kilometres with a payload of 500
kilograms.[5]
Although China has not joined the MTCR’s formulation and revision, it has
signalled that it would study the feasibility of joining the regime. This
came as a result of the Jiang-Clinton Beijing summit of 1998, reflecting
their effort to cultivate a constructive partnership. It is understood that
China has conditioned its joining the MTCR on the question of the US arms
sales to Taiwan, especially US TMD development and deployment in this part of
the world.
The two countries were engaging on this matter until their talks on
non-proliferation, arms control and international security were,
unfortunately, suspended in the aftermath of NATO’s bombing of the Chinese
embassy in Belgrade in May 1999. Their arms control talk is not resumed till
July 2000, following their security consultation in Beijing in February.
NMD Undermining Russia and China’s Security
On 17 and 18 March 1999 respectively, the US Senate and House of
Representatives overwhelmingly approved National Missile Defence System
legislation, stating “That it is the policy of the United States to deploy a
national missile defence”.[6] This has evoked tremendous repercussions
around the world, drawing negative responses from all other nuclear weapons
states and even US allies in NATO.[7]
According to the NMD plan, the US will deploy 100 interceptors in Alaska in
its first configuration. Assuming a 1 in 4 rate of interception, the US could
at most hit 25 incoming missiles, a more than sufficient capability to take
care of the alleged threat from those “rogue” states’ said to be
developing long-range ballistic missiles with which to target America. At
later stages, the US would deploy further kinetic kill vehicles in North
Dakoda in order to provide nationwide missiles defence.
The US has stated clearly that China has not figured in its NMD calculations.
However, China views the situation differently and remains strongly
suspicious of the US intentions in terms of NMD development. From China’s
perspective, it is untenable that the US would spend 60-100 billion dollars
on a system which has only “rogue” states in mind.
Such capability of intercontinental strike by ballistic missile owned by “rogu
e” states does not yet exist. Excluding the P5, only Israel, Saudi Arabia,
India, Pakistan, DPRK and Iran are currently believed to have medium-range
missiles with ranges above 1,000km. Only four of these states, India,
Pakistan, DPRK and Iran, may also have active programmes to develop
intermediate-range missiles with ranges of over 3,000km.[8] It is highly
unlikely that any of them will acquire an ICBM capability within a decade or
so. The CIA’s classified 1998 Annual Report to Congress on Foreign Missile
Development recognised that the ICBM threat to the United States from
so-called rogue states is unlikely to materialise before 2010, with the
possible exception of DPRK.[9]
Only Russia and China currently have the capability to hit the United States
with nuclear warheads on intercontinental ballistic missiles. However, this
is not a new phenomenon. Both the US and Russia have maintained their nuclear
arsenals of thousands of deployed nuclear weapons. Their nuclear arsenals are
at basically comparable levels in terms of quality and quantity. It is the
ABM Treaty signed in 1972 that has prevented the US and the former Soviet
Union from embarking on unlimited strategic arms race.
The ABM Treaty does allow the US and the former Soviet Union (now Russia as
its sole legitimate successor) to deploy limited anti-strategic ballistic
missiles capability for the sake of incidental and/or unauthorised launches.
It has doubly served strategic stability. First, for limited nuclear attack
due to incidental/unauthorised launch, it permits limited capability to
intercept. Second, for an all-out nuclear attack and counterattack, it
assures the rivals of their mutual destruction. Indeed, the Treaty has helped
dissuade the two nuclear weapons superpowers from further escalating their
strategic offensive build-up.
With Russia’s ongoing social and economic disruption, its military
capability has been affected significantly. In the context of strategic
offence-defence relationship, Russia is being pressed three-fold. First, a
significant amount of Russia’s strategic force is ageing and has to be
phased out. Therefore, Russia needs deep bilateral nuclear weapons reductions
with the US, but it refuses to do this at the expense of revising ABM,
permitting the change of balance of power in favour of the US. Second, START
II would eliminate Russia’s land-based MIRVs. At a time of the US rhetoric
of abrogating ABM anyway, the Russia has to reconsider the necessity to
disarm its MIRVed weapons. Third, Russia’s missile defence, permitted under
ABM, is eroding as its early warning satellite system can no longer provide
full coverage.[10]
As such the world is experiencing a double danger. Russia cannot properly
execute its launch-on-warning of strategic force as it is unable to fully
track missile launch and flight. Russia’s refusal to cut its nuclear force,
when it has to cut it, also creates difficulty in nuclear disarmament.
However, the latter issue is a result of the US missile defence build-up in
violation of ABM Treaty.
Consequently, the US NMD build-up will be harmful to US-Russia relations. It
presses Russia to be hesitant in continuing strategic nuclear disarmament,
and may force Moscow to strengthen its offensive capability. By revising or
even abandoning the ABM Treaty, the US will seek absolute security regardless
its negative effect on the security of other countries.
From China’s perspective, the US national missile defence would cause even
worse strategic relations between Beijing and Washington. Though China has
not publicly made its nuclear capability transparent, its CSS-4 ICBM force,
capable of reaching the US with a range of 13,000 kilometres, is largely
believed by the Western strategic analysts to number around 20.[11]
China’s concern over the US national missile defence in violation of ABM has
been expressed through various channels many times.[12] Primarily China is
concerned about two issues. One is that the NMD will destabilise the world
order, and harm the international relations. The other is that NMD will
undermine China’s strategic deterrence, undermining China’s confidence in
its strategic retaliatory capability.
A limited anti-ballistic missile capability, as allowed by the existing ABM
Treaty, would be enough to defend the strategic assets of the US against
potential missile threats from outside the P5. Indeed the one-site base of
anti-ballistic missile deployment under ABM framework cannot immunise the
whole US from being hit. It is exactly this reason that has given Russia (as
well as other nuclear weapons states) a confidence that they retain a
credible nuclear deterrence vis-à-vis the US. Theoretically, part of the US
would thus be exposed to some missile threat from “rogue” states. However,
either that threat has been too remote, or the overwhelming strength of the
US in both nuclear and conventional weapons will be powerful enough to deter
potential adversaries from initiating hostilities.
Also the envisaged NMD cannot stop an all-out Russian nuclear attack,
considering the thousands of strategic weapons at Russia’s disposal.
Therefore, Beijing can only take the view that US NMD has been designed to
effectively neutralise China’s strategic deterrence.
Given the reported level of China’s full-range ICBM force (CSS-4), the NMD
plans requiring ABM revision would (if successfully implemented as
advertised) compromise China’s strategic capability in two respects.
Geographically, it will protect the whole US from being deterred.
Numerically, even interceptors deployed on a single site may be enough to
knock out all Chinese CSS-4s.[13] Hence China’s national security interest
is greatly endangered.
To hold the US credibly deterred is just to reciprocate, to a much lower
extent, what the US has long done against China during the nuclear age. In
fact, it was US nuclear threats to PRC on a number of occasions that prompted
Beijing to start its nuclear weapons programme.[14]
Though the US has the most formidable nuclear arsenal and most powerful and
sophisticated conventional arsenal, it retains the option of a first-strike
with nuclear weapons as its deterrence policy. Now the US would even revise
or abolish the ABM which assures nuclear weapons states of their mutual
security.
The PRC has one of the smallest nuclear arsenals and least advanced
conventional weaponry among all the nuclear weapons states, but it still
adopts a nuclear no-first-use policy, and a nuclear no-use policy against
non-nuclear weapons states or nuclear weapons free zones.
The PRC’s national security thus rests with what ABM provides. The US indeed
can develop and deploy anti-strategic weapons capability, as permitted by the
ABM, in order to gain certain sense of security against incidental and/or
unauthorised attack by nuclear weapons. Nevertheless, it ought to take into
account the common security of all nuclear weapons states. When the US
improves its own security at a time of ballistic missile proliferation, it
should mind not to undermine the national security of others. Indeed there is
an internationally acceptable limit that the US can pursue, i.e. developing
its NMD capability in compliance with the Treaty.
Addressing China’s Concern
The US can argue that it is its sovereign rights to develop and deploy NMD
beyond ABM Treaty. However, if the US were to go ahead regardless of the
other states, it certainly would not create a win-win situation. Indeed, it
would be counterproductive in terms of US interests.
Some in the U.S. have been indifferent of the negative security impact the
revision of AMB would bring upon other states. In this theory the US shall
at most care to some extent Russia’s concern. As ABM involves the business
between US and Russia, there seems no need to address China’s concern.
The US shall understand the ABM is both a balancer of power between US and
Russia, and, more fundamentally, a cornerstone of global security. In the
latter context, China’s security is affected by the standing of ABM. The PRC
has expressed its interest in multilateralising ABM, in the hope of expanding
ABM membership.[15] This reflects Beijing’s interest in maintaining ABM by
raising the stake of altering a multilateral treaty. Being a member of the
ABM, Beijing would be situated in a better strategic position to enhance
world stability.
There have thus far been two interception tests of NMD systems. The first was
carried out on 2 October 1999 and was found to have flaws.[16] The second
test on 18 January 2000 was a complete failure due to a “plumbing leak”.[17]
The US has self-imposed a deadline for making a decision on NMD deployment in
June/July, after one more test. Even though future tests could be more or
less “successful”, it would be still quite irresponsible to make a decision
to go ahead.[18] It will be in neither America’s ultimate interest, nor the
interest of the rest of the world.
If the US insists on hurting the national interests of Russia and medium
nuclear weapons states, it is hard to see how it will be possible to gather
international support for non-proliferation initiatives in other fronts. The
Fissile Materials Cut-Off Treaty (FissBan) is an obvious example. Were the US
to break the ABM Treaty, medium nuclear weapons states would be unlikely to
give up their option of retaining the right to re-open production of fissile
materials for weapons purposes, if they feel their deterrence is eroded.
It should also be pointed out that there are ample means to defeat a missile
defence.[19] Various means such as submunitions, high as well as low altitude
countermeasures, balloon decoys, chaff and missile fragment decoys can all be
considered. MIRVing and ASAT approaches might also be tempting. It goes
without saying that if a state is able to independently develop a strategic
missile capability, it should also be able to develop a capability to
cost-effectively defeat missile defence.[20]
Some argue that there is a growing threat from China as it is modernising its
strategic forces. Looking at the CSS-4 force developed and China’s sea-based
deterrence, one can hardly reach this conclusion. A land-based strategic
force of about two dozens of intercontinental ballistic missiles, and a very
small submarine-based missile force, is hardly any match for those of the
United States.
As China intends to adopt a no-first-use strategy, it serves China’s
interest to keep a moderate force. However, China has a need to modernise its
force as its defensive policy requires to do so, and as all other countries
are doing the same. This is especially true at an age of precision-guided
weaponry. An ICBM force of some two dozens of missile does not justify the US
to revise or abolish ABM Treaty. Quite to the opposite, China’s moderate
strategic force and moderate modernisation play a key role in assuring the US
adequate security, which serves a stabilising role in terms of China-US
relations, and world security.
In sum, the United States does have legitimate concern over missile
proliferation. That concern is shared by Chinese side. Major powers of the
world, along with other countries, should work together to address such
international problems, and to find solutions which serve both international
stability and their respective national interests. Moving along the lines
provided for by the ABM Treaty provides such a way forward. On the contrary,
going ahead with damaging ABM and other countries’ interests can only be
counterproductive.
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* Dingli Shen is a professor and Deputy Director of Fudan University’s
Centre for American Studies, as well as Deputy Director of University
Committee of Research and Development. He co-founded and directs China’s
first university-based Program on Arms Control and Regional Security at
Fudan. The views presented in this chapter are purely of his own. This piece
is adopted and updated from a longer version, “BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENCE AND
CHINA’S NATIONAL SECURITY”, Jane’s Special Report, May 2000.
[1] For instance, India has tested Agni and Prithvi, and Pakistan has tested
Ghauri ballistic missiles a number of times in the 1990s. DPRK is alleged to
have developed and tested No-dong and Taepo-dong intermediate-range ballistic
missiles. Reportedly some other countries are developing their ballistic
missile capabilities.
[2] Edward N. Luttwak, “Clinton’s Missile Defense Goes Way Off Its
Strategic Target”, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, June 14, 2000, p.2.
[3] “China’s National Defence”, Information Office of the State Council of
the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, July 1998.
[4] MTCR was set up in April 1987, and modified in July 1993 to target
missiles capable of delivering any type of weapons of mass destruction.
[5] “Joint United States-People’s Republic of China Statement on Missile
Proliferation”, Washington, D.C., 4 October 1994.
[6] The House version, sponsored by Curt Weldon (R-PA), was a bill of
one-sentence as quoted in the text.
[7] Joseph Fitchett, “Washington’s Pursuit of Missile Defense Drives Wedge
in NATO”, International Harold Tribune, 15 February 2000, p.5.
[8] “The Missile Threat: An Intelligence Assessment”, Issue Brief (Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace), 10 February 2000.
[9] Craig Cerniello, “CIA Holds to Assessment of Ballistic Missile Threat to
US”, Arms Control Today, October 1998, p.24.
[10] David Hoffman, “Russia’s Missile Defense Eroding: Gaps in
Early-Warning Satellite Coverage Raise Risk of Launch Error”, Washington
Post, 10 February 1999, p.A1.
[11] CIA put the number as about 20, see Craig Cerniello, “CIA Holds to
Assessment of Ballistic Missile Threat to US”, Arms Control Today, October
1998, p.24, and, SIPRI Yearbook 1999: Armament, Disarmament and International
Security (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1999), p.555; IISS estimated it as
15-20, see The Military Balance 1999-2000 (Oxford University Press: Oxford,
1999), p.186. The Natural Resources Defense Council estimated the number in
1993 as 4, see Robert S. Norris, Andrew S. Burrows and Richard W. Fieldhouse,
Nuclear Weapons Databook Volume 4: Britain, French, and Chinese Nuclear
Weapons (Westview Press: Boulder, 1994), p.11.
[12] For instance, Sha Zhukang, “International Disarmament on A Crossroad”,
World Affairs (Beijing), February 2000, p.17; Gao Junmin and Lü Dehong, “A
Dangerous Move”, PLA Daily, 24 January 1999, p.4.
[13] Assuming China has 20 CSS-4s, the 100 interceptors deployed on a single
ABM site will be more than enough to hit all of them under a 1 in 4
interception ratio.
[14] See, Dingli Shen, “The Current Status of Chinese Nuclear Forces and
Nuclear Policies”, Princeton University/Centre for Energy and Environmental
Studies Report No. 247, February 1990; McGeorge Bundy, Danger and Survival:
Choices about the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (Random House: New York,
1988).
[15] See luncheon speech of Ambassador Shu Zhukang at Seventh Carnegie
International Non-Proliferation Conference: Repairing the Regime, 11-12
January 1999, Washington, D.C.
[16] James Glanz, “Flaws Found In Missile Test That U.S. Saw As A Success”,
New York Times, 14 January 2000, p.1.
[17] Robert Suro, “Missile Defense System Fails Test”, Washington Post, 19
January 2000, p.1; Bradley Graham, “Plumbing Leak Foiled Anti-Missile Test”,
Washington Post, 8 February 2000, p.A1.
[18] However, Richard Garwin has pointed out that “the proposed NMD system
would have essentially zero capability against the most likely emerging
threat – an ICBM from North Korea”. See, “Effectiveness of Proposed
National Missile Defense Against ICBMs from North Korea”,
http://www.fas.org/rlg/990317-nmd.htm.
[19] See description in Joseph Cirincione and Frank von Hippel ed., The Last
15 Minutes: Ballistic Missile Defense in Perspective (Coalition to Reduce
Nuclear Danger: Washington, D.C, 1996); Countermeasures: A Technical
Evaluation of the Operational Effectiveness of the Planned US National
Missile Defense System (Union of Concerned Scientists and MIT Security
Studies Program), April 2000.
[20] See cost analysis in Dingli Shen, “Security Issues Between China and
the United States”, IFRI Report (Institut Fran1ais des Relations
Internationales, Paris), to be published.
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