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发信人: bage (网事如疯·春心萌动), 信区: AerospaceScience
标 题: SpaceViews -- 2000 June 26(转载)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2000年12月23日17:49:46 星期六), 转信
【 以下文字转载自 bage 的信箱 】
【 原文由 hitsma@0451.com 所发表 】
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S P A C E V I E W S
Issue 2000.26
2000 June 26
http://www.spaceviews.com/2000/0626/
*** Special Report: Water on Mars ***
Spacecraft Detects Recent Water Flows on Mars
Mars Water: Separating Facts from Hype
The Difficulties of Searching for Water on Mars
Meteorite Provides New Evidence for Martian Oceans
*** News ***
MirCorp Announces First Space Tourist to Mir
House Passes NASA Budget
Proton Launches Russian Satellite
NASA Investigating Shuttle Engine Problem
Congressional Hearing Airs Out Differences Over "Faster Better
Cheaper" Missions
Study: 900 Large Potentially Hazardous Asteroids
SpaceViews Event Horizon
Other News
*** Articles ***
The U.S. Navy in the Space Age
Dear readers,
As you may already know by now, SPACE.com has agreed to
acquire Starport.com, and with it, SpaceViews. SpaceViews joined
forces with Starport.com last year to help communicate the space
experience and advance the exploration of space. While such an
acquisition wasn't necessarily the most desired outcome, in the long
run it should definitely help advance these goals.
Rest assured that in the short term there will be few changes
with SpaceViews. I look forward to beginning discussions in the near
future with SPACE.com on the best way to integrate SpaceViews into
SPACE.com to best serve the needs of everyone. I've been working on
SpaceViews for nearly seven years, and have put a tremendous amount of
my own time and money -- both very scarce assets -- into it, and I
will thus certainly work to protect that investment. Should you have
any questions or concerns about this, don't hesitate to contact me by
email at jeff@spaceviews.com and I will do my best to address those
issues.
Ad astra,
Jeff Foust
Editor, SpaceViews -- http://www.spaceviews.com
jeff@spaceviews.com
PS: Look for a separate message in the near future with more
information about the acquisition and a special deal from SPACE.com.
*** Special Report: Water on Mars ***
Spacecraft Detects Recent Water Flows on Mars
High-resolution images from NASA's Mars Global Surveyor
spacecraft have revealed features that scientists believe to be
evidence of recent flows of water on the Martian surface, a discovery
that could have far-reaching effects on our understanding of the
planet and the potential for past or present life there.
The paper, released by the journal Science Thursday morning
even though it is not scheduled to be published by the magazine until
this coming Friday, outlined the discovery of about 120 areas on the
Martian surface, nearly all located at middle and high latitudes, that
have geological features consistent with the recent runoff of water on
the surface.
"This discovery is quite surprising and confusing because it
doesn't fit our models of what Mars is like," said Michael Malin of
Malin Space Science Systems, one of the authors of the Science paper,
at a NASA press conference Thursday morning.
Alcoves, Channels, and Aprons
The evidence is in the form of images of channels and gullies
in the sides of a number of craters, nearly all either south of 30
degrees south latitude or north of 30 degrees north, with the great
majority in the southern hemisphere.
The features consist of three parts: an "alcove" of material
on the upper sides of crater walls, channels that cut through material
along the sides, and an "apron" of material deposited by the channels
at the bottom of the features. These features are all consistent with
similar features seen on the Earth that are formed by flowing water.
The features are particularly puzzling to planetary scientists
because they exist far away from the equator of the planet, which had
been thought to be most likely to show evidence of liquid water.
Moreover, they appear on the side of craters and depressions that face
away from the equator, and thus are out of direct sunlight.
The model presented by Malin and co-author Ken Edgett to
explain these features begins with groundwater flowing through a layer
of rock several hundred meters below the surface. The water
percolates through the layer until it reaches the crater face, where
an ice barrier forms. Water pressure behind the barrier builds up
until the ice barrier is broken, causing a sudden flow of water out
the side of the crater, creating the features seen by the spacecraft.
What makes this discovery of particular interest is the age of
the features. While past images of Mars have shown features that
appear to have been shaped by flowing water, those features are
believed to be billions of years old. By contrast, these groundwater
features are quite young: certainly less than a few million years old,
and possibly as young as the present time, based on the lack of impact
craters and other geologic features used to judge their age.
Edgett pointed to image of one such feature that showed light
and dark streaks, evidence that the feature is free of the patina of
dust that covers the rest of the planet. "That would tell you
something was happening on the surface right now, in the past year or
two," he said.
Speculation about such groundwater flows first started more
than two years ago, based on early images of similar features from
MGS, but the low-resolution images didn't provide enough details at
the time. "We had a hint of this two years ago, but it was not a
scientifically valid story at the time," said Malin.
Challenging Models and Supporting Life
The findings, if true, would challenge current models of the
planet. Bruce Jakosky of the University of Colorado noted that, at
the latitudes where the features were seen, the ground should be
frozen to a depth of three to seven kilometers (1.8 to 4.3 miles),
preventing the formation of groundwater.
An alternative explanation, put forward by Mike Carr of the
U.S. Geological Survey, is that the features might have been formed by
flows of gas, rather than water. That gas would likely be carbon
dioxide, which could come from clathrates -- molecules of carbon
dioxide mixed with water ice -- beneath the surface.
If these features did form because of water, it would bolster
the case for past or present life on the planet. "This is the smoking
gun that Mars meets all the environmental requirements to support
life," said Jakosky, referring to liquid water, organic materials, and
energy.
The discovery doesn't mean, though, that life has been
detected or could exist today, and Jakosky said it would be difficult
to look for life there now. "We know how to look for terrestrial
life," he said, "but we don't necessarily know how to look for Martian
life."
Future Plans
NASA is planning to follow up these observations with its next
mission to Mars, the Mars Surveyor 2001 Orbiter. That spacecraft will
include a "high spatial resolution middle-infrared imaging system that
will examine the seepage sites in search of evidence of water-related
minerals," said Jim Garvin, program scientist for NASA's Mars
exploration efforts.
However, scientists advised that perhaps they only way they'll
for certain that liquid water formed these features is to visit Mars
in person and take a "pick and shovel" to the features.
Such a mission is unlikely to come soon, and this discovery
will not add to any pressure to mount a human mission in the near
future. "Before we send humans to Mars there's a lot of homework we
have to do," said Ed Weiler, NASA associate administrator for space
science.
The discovery, though, does highlight the changes in our
understanding of a planet once thought to be much simpler than the
Earth. "Mars is turning out to be an interesting and diverse planet,"
said Weiler.
"Mars is nothing like what we thought it was going to be
before this mission," said Edgett. "This is not your mother's Mars."
Mars Water: Separating Facts from Hype
While Thursday's announcement of the discovery of evidence of
recent flows of liquid water failed to meet much of the short-lived
hype attached to it, the discovery could have important long-term
implications for the study and eventual colonization of the Red
Planet.
Word about the discovery was first leaked to the public on
Monday, when the NASA Watch Web site posted a report of a "potential
major discovery" about Mars. The report stated that NASA has "briefed
the White House" about the discovery and planned to release it at a
press conference Thursday, June 29.
This announcement set journalists -- and rumor mills -- in
motion. By Tuesday evening most major media outlets were reporting
some variant of the same story, but with few additional details.
Online discussion lists were also filled with educated guesses and
wild speculation about the discovery.
Reports and rumors soon focused on the potential discovery of
water on Mars. While Mars has extensive deposits of water ice at its
poles, and its atmosphere does contain traces of water vapor, water
had not been spotted elsewhere on the planet's surface. Reports about
the discovery varied from claims that seasonal ice deposits were seen
to the observation of standing pools of liquid water at the base of
Valles Marineris, the giant canyon that stretches for thousands of
kilometers across the surface.
The speculation prompted NASA on Wednesday to move up the date
of the press conference one week. The press release was originally
scheduled to coincide with the publication of a paper about the
discovery in the June 30 issue of the journal Science. However, with
the permission of Science, the space agency moved up the press
conference "because some press reports over the past two days on the
subject have been incorrect in significant areas," according to a NASA
statement.
While some speculation equated the importance of this
discovery with the August 1996 announcement of evidence of past life
in Martian meteorite ALH84001, the actual discovery -- evidence of
geologically recent flows of water on the Martian surface -- seemed to
fall short of expectations.
The scientists who made the discovery "have not found lakes or
rivers flowing on Mars," said Ed Weiler, NASA associate administrator
of space science, at the beginning of the press conference. "They
have not found hot springs. They certainly have not found hot tubs
with Martians in them!"
While the discovery failed to meet some people's expectations,
it still is a major finding. "The presence of liquid water on Mars
has profound implications for the question of life not only in the
past, but perhaps even today," said Weiler. "If life ever did develop
there, and if it survives to the present time, then these landforms
would be great places to look."
The water is the final key ingredient, after organic compounds
and energy, needed to support life on Mars. "This is the smoking gun
that Mars meets all the environmental requirements to support life,"
said Bruce Jakosky of the University of Colorado.
"The question of life -- past, present and future -- dominates
the public interest in Mars," said Louis Friedman, executive director
of the Planetary Society. "The possibility of life in the Martian
subsurface is now even more credible, and the implications for future
robotic and human exploration are exciting."
Moreover, the existence of liquid water near the Martian
surface could make future human missions to the Red Planet much
simpler and less expensive, since crews would not have to carry all
the water they needed for their entire mission, which could last up to
three years.
"I think one of the most interesting and significant aspects
of this discovery is what it could mean if human explorers ever go to
Mars," said Michael Malin of Malin Space Science Systems, one of the
coauthors of the Science paper. "If water is available in substantial
volumes in areas other than the poles, it would make it easier for
human crews to access and use it -- for drinking, to create breathable
air, and to extract oxygen and hydrogen for rocket fuel or to be
stored for use in portable energy sources."
However, Weiler quashed any speculation that this discovery
could shorten the wait for a human mission. "Before we send humans to
Mars there's a lot of homework we have to do," he said.
One announcement made Thursday seemed typical of the rumors
and stories floating around earlier in the week. Weiler confirmed
that NASA did, in fact, brief the White House earlier in the month
about the discovery. However, Weiler said the meeting was not with
President Clinton or Vice President Gore, but with Neal Lane, the
presidential science advisor. Moreover, he noted, such briefings of
Lane are relatively routine.
The Difficulties of Searching for Water on Mars
While images from the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) spacecraft
strongly suggest that liquid water has flowed on the surface of Mars
in recent times, actually detecting this water -- from orbit or on the
surface -- may prove much more difficult.
Although other explanations have been put forward for the more
than 100 "seepage" features seen in craters in the mid and high
latitudes of Mars, scientists believe this discharge of liquid water
is the most likely explanation.
"It's really quite compelling," said Mike Carr, a planetary
geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey who has been studying the
question of water on Mars for thirty years.
The unlikely location of the features, though -- at higher,
colder latitudes, rather than closer to the equator -- has made some
scientists skeptical. Those seeking additional evidence to confirm or
refute this explanation, though, may have to wait some time as new
missions that could search for water are launched.
While scientists continue to use the Mars Global Surveyor
spacecraft, a new instrument on NASA's next mission to Mars might
help. The Mars Surveyor 2001 Orbiter will carry a camera sensitive to
middle-infrared wavelengths of light, a region of the spectrum where
many minerals have a unique signature of spectral features that allows
scientists to identify them.
Jim Galvin, Mars program scientist at NASA headquarters, said
the instrument could be used to survey the seepage features from
orbit, looking for any evidence of water-related minerals that could
be additional evidence that flowing water created the features.
Europe's first mission to Mars, Mars Express, could directly
detect water itself. The spacecraft, scheduled for launch in 2003,
will carry a radar named MARSIS capable of mapping underground water
deposits to a depth of five kilometers (three miles). By comparison,
the groundwater thought to create the seepage features are thought to
be no deeper than one kilometer (0.6 miles) below the surface.
"We'll be thinking about the most efficient way to operate our
instrument to analyze as many of these water features as possible,"
said Gerhard Neukum, principal investigator of the high-resolution
visible-light camera on Mars Express.
Mars Express will also carry a lander, the British-built
Beagle 2, that could also conceivably look for water. However, it's
unlikely that the lander would be targeted for any of these seepage
features, given the rugged terrain and the need for an accurate
landing.
NASA has yet to decide what spacecraft, if any, it will send
to Mars in the 2003 launch window. The space agency said earlier this
year it is weighing two options for such a mission: an orbiter capable
of finding "water-related materials" and a lander with a rover.
"We're studying these intensely right now," said Ed Weiler, NASA
associate administrator for space science, with plans to announce a
decision next month.
Final confirmation of the existence of liquid water on or near
the surface, though, may eventually require sending humans to the Red
Planet. "To get to the root of the issue, we need to get someone
there with a pick and shovel and dig in," said Michael Malin, co-
discoverer of the seepage features.
That's unlikely to happen any time soon, though. "Before we
send humans to Mars there's a lot of homework we need to do," said
Weiler.
Meteorite Provides New Evidence for Martian Oceans
One day after scientists released images which appear to show
that liquid water flowed on Mars in the recent past, another group has
provided new evidence that the early Mars had salty, Earth-like
oceans.
A group of planetary scientists led by Carleton Moore of
Arizona State University say they have found evidence in a Martian
meteorite that Mars had salty oceans much like those on Earth today.
Their findings were published in the July issue of the journal
Meteoritics and Planetary Science.
Scientists tested a sample of Nahkla, a Martian meteorite that
fell to Earth in Egypt in 1911. They found high concentrations of
chlorine in the sample, much of it water-soluable, implying it had
been deposited from a water solution.
Other ions, including sodium, magnesium, and calcium, where
found in the meteorite. "The elements in highest abundance were
sodium and chloride - like the salt water on Earth," said Moore. "In
ocean water, these are the predominant ionic elements. We are
interpreting the elements that we have extracted as having come from
an early Martian ocean."
Moore and colleagues believe the salt water leaked into the
rock and evaporated, depositing the sodium, chlorine, and other ions
within it. The rock was later blasted from the surface into space by
a meteor impact.
The discovery appears to bolster claims that the Mars, early
in its history, was much like the Earth, complete with oceans of
liquid water. While Mars has numerous geological features that appear
to have been shaped by flowing water, plus a large basin in the
planet's northern hemisphere that could have held an ocean, some
scientists have speculated that any water that existed on the planet
was very short-lived.
Moore, though, believes that water was not only from a Martian
ocean, but one very close in composition to terrestrial oceans today.
"The salts we found mimic the salts in Earth's ocean fairly closely,"
he said. The only major difference, he said, was that terrestrial
ocean water has less calcium than the Nakhla sample, likely because on
Earth the calcium has been removed biologically.
The discovery could also provide insights into conditions on
the early Earth. "The inference that the early Martian ocean was very
similar to our current ocean also implies that the early Earth's ocean
may have been very similar to what it is today," said Moore. "This is
a clue to what it might have been."
*** News ***
MirCorp Announces First Space Tourist to Mir
MirCorp, the western company leasing the Mir space station,
officially inaugurated its space tourist program Monday with the
selection of an American businessman as the first paying customer to
visit the station.
Confirming reports from late last week, MirCorp officials said
at a Monday morning press conference that Dennis Tito, founder of a
major investment firm and a former Jet Propulsion Lab employee, will
be the first "citizen explorer" to fly to Mir some time next year.
"Philosophically, [the citizen explorer program] is very
important to us, because it represents everything about MirCorp," said
Jeffrey Manber, president of MirCorp, at the press conference, which
featured Manber and Tito in Moscow and several other MirCorp officials
in Washington. "And that is opening space to people."
Under the plan unveiled Monday, Tito would fly to Mir in the
first half of 2001 and spend seven to eight days on Mir. The company
declined to name the cost of the flight to Tito, but did mention later
that a "general" price for such a flight would be about $20 million.
Tito, who helped design planetary missions at JPL for several
years in the 1960s before leaving to enter the world of finance, said
that he had an interest in space flight that dated back to the era of
Sputnik which continued as he started his investment company, Wilshire
Associates. "During that entire time, I followed the space program
closely," he said. "I maintained that dream of ultimately flying into
space."
Tito said he realized his dream could come true last December,
when the first reports of a private company operating Mir surfaced.
Discussions with MirCorp began in earnest two months ago, after
cosmonauts returned to the station.
A final contract between Tito and MirCorp has not yet been
signed, but should be completed in a couple of weeks, Manber said,
once Tito completes a set of medical tests he is currently undergoing
in Moscow. Tito said he has completed two-thirds of the tests with no
problems reported. "I'm optimistic I do have, so to say, the right
stuff to make this flight," he said.
The exact date of Tito's flight will not be set until a
MirCorp board meeting planned for July 18. The timing of that and
other Mir flights for 2001 will be set at the meeting, a process that
company officials said will depend on a variety of factors, including
the amount of capital the company has raised and "customer demand" for
such missions. A cargo flight to Mir is planned for this fall,
though, to maintain the station's orbit.
Manber and other MirCorp officials hinted that other "citizen
explorer" announcements could be forthcoming as soon as next month.
The company is in "serious discussions" with several people, in the
United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia, for future Mir flights.
The next few explorers would also pay on the order of $20 million
each, depending on the flight options they wanted.
Company officials said the citizen explorer program was just
one way the company planned to generate revenues from the station.
Other revenue sources, ranging from an Internet portal to
pharmaceutical and other microgravity-based research and manufacturing
to satellite assembly and repair, could generate $500-600 million a
year in revenue for the company, chief financial officer Kevin Wallace
said.
One of MirCorp's investors hinted that the Internet portal
site, which would stream images and other data from the station, could
come online relatively soon. Noting that the most recent Mir crew,
which returned to Earth last week after a 73-day stay on Mir,
installed data relay equipment, "we could enable an Internet portal on
Mir in 30 to 60 days," said Chirinjeev Kathuria. "This could easily
be the next Yahoo or AOL," he claimed.
MirCorp is 60 percent owned by Energia, the Russian company
that operates Mir, and 40 percent by individual investors, including
Kathuria and Walt Anderson. Company officials said Monday other
people are interested in investing in the station, and that the
company was studying those offers.
A MirCorp official said earlier this month that the company
was looking for up to $100 million in additional investment to permit
operations until an initial public offering (IPO) of stock in MirCorp.
Manber said Monday such an IPO is currently planned for the second
quarter of 2001.
House Passes NASA Budget
The House of Representatives passed Wednesday night an
appropriations bill that includes NASA's budget for fiscal year 2001,
making few changes to the NASA portion of the bill.
By a vote of 256 to 169, the House approved HR 4635, an
appropriations bill that funds the Departments of Veterans Affairs and
Housing and Uprban Development, as well as NASA and other independent
agencies. The vote roughly followed party lines, with nearly all
Republicans voting for the bill and a majority of Democrats voting
against it.
Several amendments were offered that would have made
significant changes to NASA's budget, but in most cases those
amendments were defeated. This included the annual effort by Rep. Tim
Roemer (R-IN) to cancel the International Space Station.
Roemer's arguments -- that the station was wasting tens of
billions of taxpayers' dollars -- fell on deaf ears. "If there ever
was a time to discuss this issue, it was years and years ago," said
Rep. Bud Cramer (D-AL) during debate on the amendment Wednesday. "The
gentleman from Indiana is wrong now. He was wrong then. We have been
at this for nine years. Give it a rest."
Roemer's amendment failed by a large margin, garnering only 98
yes votes versus 325 no votes. A similar amendment proposed later in
the day by Rep. Jerrold Nadler (D-NY), transferring $325 million from
the space station budget into a housing voucher program, also failed,
138-286.
Efforts to boost NASA's budget, however, also failed to be
approved by the committee. Rep. Alan Mollohan (D-WV), ranking
minority member of the appropriations subcommittee that worked on the
bill last month, proposed an amendment to boost NASA's budget by
$322.7 million, erasing most of the cuts made by that subcommittee
last month, particularly in the Space Launch Initiative program to
develop the next generation of reusable launch vehicles.
However, the amendment was ruled out of order by the House,
because had it been enacted, it would have violated the caps set on
the budget bill earlier this year. "We are certainly sensitive to the
desire of the gentleman [Mollohan] to provide these funds where they
are needed," said Rep. James Walsh (R-NY), chairman of that
subcommittee, who raised the point of order. "Unfortunately, we do not
have the additional funds to provide under our allocation."
Walsh raised the possibility that the funds could be added
later in the budget process, however. "If, perhaps, later in the
process, additional funds come available, we would be happy to work
with the gentleman to resolve this," he said
The House did make some minor changes to the NASA budget.
During debate on Tuesday the House approved by voice vote a pair of
amendment that would transfer $25 million from NASA's human space
flight program and $30 million from science, aeronautics, and
technology program to support veterans' health care issues.
The House also approved to an amendment proposed by Rep.
Elijah Cummings (D-MD) that would transfer $2.8 million from the human
space flight program in NASA to the space agency's University Research
Centers at 14 historically-minority universities.
While approving the bill, some members of Congress seemed
disappointed with the results, particularly with NASA, which saw its
budget request trimmed by more than $300 million by the committee.
"Once again the Congress is being put through an exercise,"
said Mollohan. "The appropriation subcommittee chairmen are being
given unreasonably low allocations and are being told to write bills
accordingly, which they reluctantly do. By the time these bills are
signed into law, however, we end up with something so markedly
different that it begs the question of why we go through this exercise
at all."
This exercise will now continue in the Senate, which has yet
to consider its version of the appropriations bill. Once it passes
its version, a conference committee consisting of members of both the
House and Senate will meet to iron out differences between the bills.
It is usually here where the allocations are adjusted to work out
problems raised during House and Senate debate.
Congress hopes to wrap up all the appropriations bills by
early fall, so it can adjourn at least several weeks before the
November elections. It is currently on track to accomplish this: the
House did not pass last year's appropriations bill for NASA until
September.
Proton Launches Russian Satellite
In another step towards next month's launch of a key
International Space Station module, a Proton rocket successfully
launched a Russian communications satellite early Saturday.
The Proton lifted off from Baikonur, Kazakhstan at 8:28 pm EDT
Friday night (0028 UT Saturday), one day later than planned because of
equipment problems. The booster successfully placed into
geosynchronous transfer orbit the Express-3A communications satellite.
The satellite is the second in a series of advanced Express-A
communications satellites developed by Russian aerospace firm NPO PM,
with a communications payload provided by French firm Alcatel. It
joins Express-6A, launched on a Proton in March.
From its position in geosynchronous orbit at 11 degrees west
longitude, Express-3A will provide television broadcasts to portions
of Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East, as well as
transatlantic communications links between North America and Europe.
The launch is the second one for the Proton this month, after
a Proton launched a Gorizont communications satellite on June 6. That
launch was the first to test a net set of upper-stage engines on the
booster designed to prevent problems that caused the loss of two
Proton boosters last year.
At least one more Proton launch is planned before the launch
next month of the International Space Station's Zvezda service module
on a Proton from Baikonur. While International Launch Services, the
joint venture that markets the Proton to commercial customers in the
West, plans to launch the Sirius 1 radio broadcasting satellite on
July 1, that launch could be bumped by a Russian military launch.
NASA and Russian officials said they wanted to see several
successful flights of the Proton before entrusting it with the service
module, a key component whose assembly and launch delays have held up
assembly of the space station for more than two years. The Proton has
now had five consecutive successful flights since its last failure
last October.
Zvezda is currently planned for a launch between July 10 and
12. An exact date will be set after a general designers' review of
the module, scheduled for Monday in Moscow.
NASA Investigating Shuttle Engine Problem
NASA has started an investigation into an incident with a
space shuttle main engine that shut down prematurely during a test
firing earlier this month.
Robert Sackheim, assistant director and chief engineer for
propulsion at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, will lead an
investigation into an engine problem during a planned 200-second test
of an experimental shuttle main engine at the Stennis Space Center in
Mississippi on June 16. The engine shut down unexpectedly about five
seconds into the planned 200-second test firing.
NASA officials said higher-than-expected temperatures were
detected in the engine as the test began. Automated controls shut
down the engine when the temperatures exceeded safe levels. The space
agency did not disclose what damage, if any, was sustained by the
engine during the test, although the online publication Spaceflight
Now said there was some damage to the engine's turbine and combustion
chamber.
The space agency stressed in a statement Thursday that the
problem was not with a flight-qualified engine. Instead, the problem
was with an engine with a modified high-pressure turbopump. That
turbopump was smaller than those used on flight-related engines; this,
in turn, generates higher-than-normal temperatures within the engine.
The engines have been the subject of some scrutiny in recent
times. During the launch Columbia on mission STS-93 last July, a pin
designed to close a turbopump tube fell out, falling through the
engine and damaging several hydrogen coolant lines on the size of the
nozzle. This caused engine temperatures to rise close to dangerous
levels during the shuttle's ascent to orbit, but the engine did not
need to be shut down.
After the STS-103 mission in December technicians discovered a
defective tip seal in one of the shuttle Discovery's main engines.
The seal, designed to direct hot gases through and not around turbine
blades in the turbopump, was a "non-flight" model that had been
rejected during testing but still managed to make its way into the
engine and made several flights before the damage was discovered.
That problem prompted a last-minute check of the seals on the
shuttle Endeavour before its STS-99 mission in February, and also led
to the replacement of one of the three main engines on Atlantisin
March prior to its STS-101 flight to the International Space Station.
Congressional Hearing Airs Out Differences Over
"Faster Better Cheaper" Missions
Members of Congress debated Tuesday with top NASA officials
and former project managers on the best way to improve NASA's
philosophy of "faster, better, cheaper" spacecraft missions.
NASA administrator Dan Goldin told members of the House
Science Committee that the agency was learning from mistakes it made
in recent years that culminated with the loss late last year of the
Mars Climate Orbiter and the Mars Polar Lander.
"I pushed too hard and stretched the system too thin," Goldin
told Congressmen.
Goldin and Ed Stone, director of the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, told the committee that the agency was hard at work
implementing changes to not only its Mars exploration program, but its
spacecraft projects in general, with an eye towards increasing the
amount of oversight and review of projects to catch errors.
Goldin said those changes could be implemented without
increasing NASA's budget. "When I came to NASA, money was the magic
ingredient," said Goldin: the more the better. Now, he said,
"additional funding may be the option of last resort."
However, the heads of two projects held up as successful
examples of faster better cheaper (FBC) rejected NASA's conclusions
that additional oversight was necessary, and were in fact concerned
that additional layers of management could put NASA back on the path
of larger, slower projects earlier in its history.
"There is no magic in FBC, only common sense," said Pedro
Rustan, the former Air Force officer who led the NASA/Defense
Department Clementine mission to the Moon in 1994. Extensive reviews
and "management by committee" are not the way to solve NASA's
problems, he said.
Alan Binder, principal investigator for NASA's Lunar
Prospector mission, concurred. He warned that if NASA followed the
recommendation in a recent set of reports, including the "Young
report" from an independent panel headed by former Lockheed Martin
executive Thomas Young, the agency could "go down the path back to the
old days" of large, expensive projects.
Binder attributed the success of his extremely low-cost Lunar
Prospector mission to a small staff of managers, experienced senior
scientists and engineers, and the use of flight-tested hardware,
software, and instruments.
Members of the committee did fire verbal attacks at Goldin for
the loss of the two Mars missions. Noting that evidence of the units
error that doomed the Mars Climate Orbiter was known for much of the
mission but not acted on, committee chairman James Sensenbrenner (R-
WI) blasted NASA for its mismanagement of the mission. "NASA's
failure to act on a known problem bothers me," he said.
Sensenbrenner also cited a "cavalier attitude towards testing"
at NASA that failed to catch a problem with the landing legs on the
Mars Polar Lander spacecraft, believed to be the leading cause for the
mission's failure.
When asked about reports that project managers had gone to
Goldin several times to discuss problems with the project and request
additional funding, only to be rejected, Goldin admitted that he
"might have been in error" by turning them away, but defended his
actions as part of a necessary step to reform the agency. "You don't
win popularity contests when you're changing a bureaucracy."
However, even well-run FBC missions can run into problems, as
Rustan recounted the software glitch that caused the loss of
Clementine while it was en route to an asteroid for the next part of
its mission. That problem was caused by a failure to follow proper
testing procedures by controllers who had been pushed to the limits
by weeks of hard work while Clementine was in orbit around the Moon.
"If you keep pushing and pushing the system," Rustan warned,
"problems will occur."
Study: 900 Large Potentially Hazardous Asteroids
A new study released Thursday estimates there are about 900
large asteroids in orbits that could potentially prove hazardous to
the Earth.
The results, published in the June 23 issue of the journal
Science, mean that fewer than half of the potentially-hazardous
asteroids (PHAs) one kilometer (0.62 miles) in diameter or larger have
yet to be discovered.
Astronomers from Cornell University, the University of
Arizona, and the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur used theoretical
models, combined with data on the known PHAs, to estimate the total of
number of PHAs and the orbits in which they are likely to reside.
They believe that there are about 900, plus or minus 100,
large PHAs. This result is consistent with, although on the high end
of, an estimate of 500 to 1,000 such PHAs published by another team of
astronomers earlier this year in the journal Nature. Both results,
though, are considerably smaller than previous estimates of up to
2,000 such large PHAs.
The one-kilometer cutoff for the study was chosen because of
the damage such a large object would do if it struck the Earth,
explained William Bottke of Cornell University, one of the co-authors
of the paper. "One kilometer in size is thought to be a magic number,
because it has been estimated that these asteroids are capable of
wreaking global devastation if they hit the Earth," he said.
None of the known large PHAs are in orbits that could cause a
collision with the Earth in the coming century. However, astronomers
have only discovered about 40 percent of the large PHAs thought to
exist according to this study.
"Of those we have found, we can accurately predict whether
they will strike the Earth over the next hundred years or so, but we
can't project out several thousands of years," said Bottke. "So it's
possible some of these asteroids eventually will move onto an Earth-
collision trajectory. It's a dangerous place out there."
Finding the other 60 percent of large PHAs will be difficult,
he said. "Most of these asteroids are too far from Earth to be easily
detected or are located in regions of the sky that are challenging for
astronomers to survey."
NASA has previously set the goal of discovering 90 percent of
all large near-Earth objects by the year 2010 through the use of
search programs such as Spacewatch in Arizona, LINEAR in New Mexico,
and NEAT in Hawaii and California.
One person asteroid researchers should not necessarily look to
for support, though, is U.S. Senator John McCain. The Arizona
Republican and former presidential candidate spoke out last week
against a provision of the fiscal year 2001 budget for the Defense
Department that includes $15 million for the Maui Space Surveillance
System, a Hawaii telescope the Defense Department wants to use to
support asteroids searches.
"I do not intend to minimize the importance of such
activities," McCain said on the Senate floor, "but only the cast of
Star Trek could conceivably have looked at a list of military funding
shortfalls and concluded that a total of $15 million had to be in the
fiscal year 2001 budget for this purpose."
SpaceViews Event Horizon
June 26 "Going Public 2000" space tourism symposium,
Washington DC
June 28 Cosmos-3M launch of a Russian military satellite from
Plesetsk, Russia
June 29 Atlas 2A launch of the TDRS-H NASA communications
satellite from Cape Canaveral, Florida.
June 30 Proton launch of the Sirius 1 satellite radio
spacecraft from Baikonur, Kazakhstan
July 4 10th Space and the USA Symposium, San Francisco,
California
July TBD Delta 2 launch of the GPS 2R-5 satellite from Cape
Canaveral, Florida
Other News
Sea Launch Return to Flight: The multinational joint venture Sea
Launch will return to flight in late July with the launch of a
PanAmSat communications satellite, the company announced last week.
Sea Launch president Will Trafton said that the company's partners, led
by Boeing, are convinced that a software problem that led to the loss
of a Zenit 3SL on the company's last launch from the Pacific Ocean in
March has been corrected. That software problem lead to a loss of
pressure in a pneumatic system that operates a steering thruster on
the rocket's second stage, causing the booster to drift off-course and
self-destruct, destroying it and its ICO communications satellite
payload. The first two Sea Launch flights, in March and October 1999,
were successful.
Globalstar Finances: Satellite phone company Globalstar denied
reports last week that the company was teetering on the edge of
bankruptcy, but did acknowledge that it would need to raise up to $160
million by October to remain operational. Rumors had been circulating
in the investment community that the company was growing far slowly
than expected and was running short of cash. "Reports that requests
for additional funding have been made and rejected are inaccurate,"
said Globalstar president and CEO Bernard Schwartz in a statement
released June 19. The company, which completed its constellation of
48 operational satellites and four on-orbit spares in February, is
being closely watched in the wake of the failures of Iridium and ICO;
a Globalstar bankruptcy could spell doom for the low-Earth orbit
communications satellite market.
Europe and Canada Renew Space Links: Officials with the European
Space Agency and the Canadian Space Agency signed a new cooperative
agreement between the two agencies last week. The ten-year agreement,
which establishes Canada as an associate member of ESA, is the fourth
such agreement in a series dating back to 1979. As an associate
member, Canadian companies can bid on ESA projects and the country
plans a role in ESA's decision-making process, although without the
voting power of a full ESA member. A new provision of the agreement
allows ESA members, in turn, to participate in Canadian space
projects.
Galileo Exits Magnetosphere: For the first time in over four years
NASA's Galileo spacecraft is outside Jupiter's magnetosphere, setting
the stage for joint observations of the planet's powerful magnetic
field with a Saturn-bound mission. Galileo project officials at the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory announced last Monday that Galileo had
passed through the boundary between the magnetic fields of the Sun and
Jupiter earlier this month, and was now in the solar wind for the
first time since early 1996, shortly after its arrival at Jupiter.
Galileo will spend the next several months studying the magnetosphere
from the outside before returning within it in October. In December
Galileo will conduct joint observations of the magnetosphere with
Cassini, a Saturn-bound spacecraft that will fly by Jupiter December
30, in an effort to study how Jupiter's powerful magnetic field, and
the charged particles trapped within it, interact with the Sun's
magnetic field and the solar wind.
Solar Storm Predictions: Scientists said last week they can now
predict the arrival of solar storms with an accuracy of just 12 hours,
four to ten times better than previous methods. Natchimuthuk
Gopalswamy of the Catholic University of America and colleagues used
data from a variety of spacecraft to generate a new model for the
movement of a type of solar storm known as a coronal mass ejection
(CME). Such storms leave the Sun at widely-varying speeds -- 20 to
2,000 kilometers per second (12 to 1,250 miles per second) -- but slow
down or speed up over time to match the 400 km/sec (250 mi/sec) solar
wind. Gopalswamy applied this model to a CME observed on the Sun on
June 6 and was able to predict its arrival at the Earth to within six
hours.
Apollo 11 Medal: The U.S. House of Representatives approved
legislation Tuesday, June 20, that would give its highest award to the
crew of the historic Apollo 11 Moon mission. The House passed by
voice vote bill HR 2815, which would authorize Congress to award Neil
Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins with the Congressional
Gold Medal, the legislative body's highest honor. The bill, if passed
by the Senate, would give the three former astronauts specially-
designed gold medals to honor their mission, the first to land humans
on the surface of the Moon. Bronze replicas of the medals could also
be struck by the U.S. Mint for sale to the public under the
legislation. "This is about 30 years too late," said Rep. James Rogan
(R-CA), who introduced the legislation last fall. "The Congress of
the United States, in 1969, should have taken the step of awarding
these three heroes, these three explorers, these three great patriots
Congress' highest award, the Congressional Gold Medal."
*** Articles ***
The U.S. Navy in the Space Age
by Andrew J. LePage
Like all the branches of the military, the U.S. Navy (USN)
took an early interest in space research. The USN space program got
its start with the country's first "official" satellite program,
Vanguard (see "Vanguard: America's Answer to Sputnik" in the December
1997 issue of SpaceViews). Run by the Naval Research Laboratory
(NRL), Vanguard and much of its personnel were transferred to NASA
shortly after its founding in October 1958 (see "Vanguard and Its
Legacy" in the February 1, 1999 issue of SpaceViews).
The Naval Ordinance Test Station (NOTS) also developed its own
top secret air launched satellite capability called NOTSNIK. However
the program never got the funding it needed to develop an operational
system because of USAF objections (see "NOTSNIK: The Navy's Secret
Satellite Program" in the July 1998 issue of SpaceViews). By the end
of 1958 it became apparent that NASA would manage all programs with
perceived civilian applications while the USAF, frequently under the
aegis of ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency), would dominate
programs of military or national security interest. Despite USAF
dominance, the USN was still able to carve itself out a useful niche
in space.
The Start of Satellite Navigation
One of the many university laboratories to work with the USN
was Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL).
Since the 1940s, APL was involved in high altitude research using
various sounding rockets including the USN's Aerobee. With the launch
of Sputnik 1 in October of 1957, APL engineers were eager to monitor
the Soviet satellite's transmissions. Among the first were William H.
Guier and George C. Weiffenbach who also noted the Doppler shift in
Sputnik's signal as it passed by. By knowing the location of their
receiver and carefully measuring how the Doppler shift changed with
time, Guier and Weiffenbach were able to accurately derive Sputnik's
orbit.
On March 14, 1958, Frank T. McClure, a colleague of Guier and
Weiffenbach's and chairman of APL's Research Center, realized that
this tracking technique could be turned on its head: If you knew the
orbit of the satellite, you could accurately derive your position on
the Earth by measuring the Doppler shift of the satellite's signal.
In 1958 ship navigation was still done by the time tested method of
measuring the positions of the Sun and stars. But when the weather
was bad, this proved to be impossible. Making use of a constellation
of orbiting satellites, a ship could determine its position regardless
of weather. After reviewing the concept in detail, McClure sent a
memo to Ralph E. Gibson, Director of APL, on March 18 and the field of
satellite navigation was born.
From the beginning, ARPA was interested in APL's satellite
navigation concept which was named "Transit". This accurate, all
weather navigation method would be ideal for the USN especially for
their submarine ballistic missile fleet then under development. These
vessels needed to precisely know their position in order to properly
target their Polaris missiles. On December 15, 1958, ARPA funded the
Transit program with APL as the prime contractor.
The first pair of prototype satellites, designated Transit 1,
were spherical in shape with a diameter of 91 centimeters (36 inches)
and weighing 122 kilograms (270 pounds). This shape made it easier to
control the satellite's interior temperature and its attitude. In
order to minimize any variations in signal strength that could
compromise accuracy, attitude was held fixed using magnetic devices
that worked using the Earth's own magnetic field. A spiral shaped,
slot antenna painted on the satellite's fiberglass exterior also
helped produce an even transmission pattern. Inside the satellite
were all the electronic components including the transmitters and a
thermally isolated, very stable oscillator. Power was provided by
banks of solar cells mounted around the equator of the satellite.
An operational Transit satellite constellation, planned to be
in place by 1962, would consist of four satellites in 930 kilometer
(575 statute or 500 nautical mile) high, near-polar orbits. From this
vantage point, any properly equipped USN ship could update its
position every few hours to an accuracy of about 150 meters (500
feet). In order to get each Transit into its required orbit, a new
launch vehicle was needed: The Thor Able Star also known as the Thor
Epsilon. Like the Thor Able upon which it is based (see "Operation
Mona: America's First Moon Program" in the April 1998 issue of
SpaceViews), the booster of this two-stage launch vehicle was a
modified USAF Thor IRBM built by Douglas Aircraft. The second stage,
built by Space Technology Laboratories, Inc., was 5.9 meters (19.3
feet) long and 1.4 meters (4.6 feet) in diameter giving it over twice
the propellant load of the Thor Able second stage. This was needed
because there was no third stage like on the earlier Thor Able.
The second stage was powered by an Aerojet-General AJ10-104
engine (similar to the AJ10-series engines used in Vanguard and the
Able second stages) burning IRFNA (Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid)
and UDMH (Unsymmetrical DiMethylHydrazine) to produce 35.1 kilonewtons
(7890 pounds) of thrust. Unlike its predecessors, however, this
second stage would have an in-orbit restart capability. During a
typical ascent, the Thor and the first burn of the second stage would
place the stage and its payload into a short-lived, elliptical
transfer orbit. After a 20-minute coast where the attitude was
controlled by nitrogen gas jets, the engine would reignite near apogee
to circularize the orbit.
With the first satellite ready before its launch vehicle, the
first Transit flight would use a Thor Able. On September 17, 1959,
only nine months after the official start of the program, Transit 1A
lifted off from Cape Canaveral. In addition to its navigation
equipment, Transit 1A also carried an IR imaging scanner built by NOTS
similar to those flown on NOTSNIK and the USAF Pioneers. As had
happened all too often before, however, the Thor Able failed to place
its payload in orbit when the third stage did not ignite and the
payload fell to Earth 480 kilometers (300 miles) southwest of Ireland.
Despite the failure, APL engineers were able to track Transit 1A
during its brief ballistic flight and determined the impact site to
within a few miles.
More Missions for the Navy
Although the Transit 1A launch failure was a disappointment,
it was not totally unexpected. Its backup, Transit 1B, was nearly
ready by the beginning of 1960 as well as its new, more reliable Thor
Able Star rocket. On April 13, 1960, the 119 kilogram (265 pound)
Transit 1B lifted off from Cape Canaveral and was successfully placed
into orbit. The Thor Able Star made the first in-orbit engine
restart, albeit purposely abbreviated, placing Transit 1B into a 381
by 764 kilometer (237 by 475 mile) orbit inclined 51 degrees to the
equator. It was more than adequate to perform Doppler navigation
tests.
Detailed tracking of Transit 1B confirmed the Earth's slight
pear shape first observed by NRL's Vanguard 1 (see "Vanguard 1: The
Little Satellite That Could" in the March 1998 issue of SpaceViews).
Tracking was also able to determine smaller scale deviations of the
Earth's shape from an oblate spheroid giving birth to the field of
dynamic geodesy. Before Transit 1B began failing on July 11, it
confirmed and measured the effects of refraction on its transmissions
caused by the ionosphere. Able to provide positional fixes to within
about 400 meters (a quarter mile), Transit 1B proved to be a very
successful test of the satellite navigation concept. Three days after
the launch of Transit 1B, a pair of APL-built transmitters launched on
Discoverer 11 successfully completed a three-day test of Transit
hardware providing APL engineers with even more data.
Another test Transit 1B performed was carrying an inert 18
kilogram (40 pound) test sphere to check the craft's ability to deploy
a piggyback payload once in orbit. Future Transit launches would
carry a NRL-built satellite to perform a new, top secret mission:
Electronic intelligence or elint. Early in 1958 while he was stranded
in a snow storm during a family trip, NRL's Reid D. Mayo came up with
the idea of using a small satellite to locate Soviet radar
installations. The elint payload could easily fit inside a modified
version of the "standard" 51 centimeter (20 inch) in diameter Vanguard
satellite thus greatly speeding its development.
The idea was simply to have the satellite relay in real time
the S-band radar signals detected while over the Soviet Union to
ground stations just over the border where it would be recorded. From
its vantage point, the satellite could detect radars within a 2650
kilometer (1650 mile) radius compared to just 320 kilometers (200
miles) typical for electronic "ferret" aircraft that patrolled along
Soviet borders. These recordings could then be analyzed to determine
the position of Soviet radar installations and their signal
characteristics. The six-watt power requirement for the mission would
be supplied by batteries recharged by a half dozen banks of solar
cells attached to the satellite's exterior.
In July of 1958, NRL proposed the concept under the codename
"Tattletale" and received approval from President Eisenhower on August
24. As with other forms of satellite surveillance, Eisenhower was
concerned about the perception of the US spying even on a secretive,
potential adversary (see "Spy in the Sky" in the March 1, 1999 issue
of SpaceViews). As a cover story and a means of making good use of
available payload space inside the satellite, NRL scientists installed
sensors to monitor the Sun's emissions in the Lyman alpha line of
hydrogen in the ultraviolet as well as X-rays to perform some
legitimate science. Publicly the 19 kilogram (42 pound) satellite was
called "SOLRAD" for SOLar RADiation. Its secret cover name was "GRAB"
for Galactic Radiation And Background although an altered, leaked
version of the name "GREB", for Galactic Radiation Experiment
Background, has also been used. While the scientific mission of the
satellite was well known, its elint mission would remain classified
until 1998.
More Launches
On June 22, 1960, Transit 2A and SOLRAD 1 were successfully
launched into orbit as the first successful piggyback satellite.
Because of some bugs in the Able Star stage, a 624 by 1070 kilometer
(388 by 665 mile) orbit was achieved instead of the desired 930
kilometer (575 mile) circular orbit. Transit 2A was an improved
version of the earlier Transit 1. It sported enlarged banks of solar
cells and many hardware upgrades to improve accuracy and reliability.
It also carried another NOTS IR scanner and a Canadian built receiver
to test equipment for an upcoming NASA-sponsored international
mission.
The public scientific and secret elint missions of SOLRAD 1
were also very successful. President Eisenhower was reluctant to give
permission to use the elint payload especially after the Gary Powers
U-2 incident the previous May. He feared that the Soviets would
detect the satellite's transmissions causing another international
incident. Before Eisenhower left office in January 1961, he had only
approved elint operations for two dozen passes. The Kennedy
administration made greater use of the elint package until it ceased
functioning in August of 1962. During its 26 month mission, GRAB
provided a veritable treasure trove of data for the US intelligence
community. SOLRAD's scientific instruments operated until April 1961.
Continuing the test program, another pair of Transit
transmitters were launched into orbit on August 18 on Discoverer 14
but they failed to operate. A repeat on Discoverer 17 launched on
November 12 worked for three days until the batteries ran down. The
next Transit launch, Transit 3A with SOLRAD 2 on November 30, 1960,
failed because of a Thor malfunction. Reportedly some debris fell on
Cuba killing a cow in the process.
A backup, Transit 3B, was launched into orbit on February 21,
1961. This time the second stage failed to restart stranding the
payload in a low 188 by 822 kilometer (117 by 511 mile) orbit.
Transit 3B also failed to separate from the second stage as did its
piggyback payload, LOFTI 1. Built by NRL and based on the SOLRAD
design, LOFTI 1 (Low Frequency Transmission through the Ionosphere)
was designed to provide information on LF transmissions for future
Navy communication satellites (and possibly elint applications as
well). Although the low orbit resulted in the satellites reentering
the atmosphere after only 39 days, both payloads returned useful data.
With a good start, the way was now set to launch new USN navigation,
elint and scientific satellites.
Bibliography
Carl Bostrom, "Defining a Problem and Designing the Mission: An
Evolutionary Process", Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Vol. 20,
No. 4, pp. 477-481, 1999
Philip J. Klass and Joseph C. Anselmo, "NRO Lifts Veil on First Sigint
Mission", Aviation Week & Space Technology, Vol. 148, No. 25, pp. 29,
32-33, June 22, 1998
Jonathan McDowell, "Naval Research Laboratory Satellites", Journal of
the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 50, No. 11, pp. 427-432,
November 1997
Robert Qualkinbush, "Transit: The US Navy Pioneer Satellite
Navigation", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 50,
No. 11, pp. 403-426, November 1997
The Author
Drew LePage is a physicist and freelance writer specializing in
astronomy and the history of spaceflight. He can be reached at
prometheus1@mediaone.net.
========
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