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发信人: bage (网事如疯·春心萌动), 信区: AerospaceScience
标 题: SpaceViews -- 2000 June 12(转载)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2000年12月23日17:49:57 星期六), 转信
【 以下文字转载自 bage 的信箱 】
【 原文由 hitsma@0451.com 所发表 】
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S P A C E V I E W S
Issue 2000.24
2000 June 12
http://www.spaceviews.com/2000/0612/
*** News ***
Proton Passes Key Test with Communications Satellite Launch
Pegasus Launches Air Force Satellite
NEAR Instrument Shut Down
Report: Compton Reentry Linked to Mir
Hale-Bopp Observations Give Clues to Its Origin
U.S. Removes Quotas on Ukrainian Launches
Supermassive Black Holes Tied to Galaxy Formation
House Committee Approves NASA Budget
Company to Fly First Web Server in Space
The Challenges of Hubble's Successor
Astronomers Weigh Universe with Galactic Map
SpaceViews Event Horizon
Other News
*** Articles ***
An Interview with Dreamtime's President
*** News ***
Proton Passes Key Test with Communications Satellite Launch
Russia's Proton booster successfully launched a domestic
communications satellite early Tuesday, passing a key milestone
towards next month's launch of the International Space Station's
service module.
The Proton lifted off from Baikonur, Kazakhstan at 10:59 pm
EDT Monday, June 5 (0259 UT Tuesday). It successfully placed into
orbit the Russian Gorizont 45 communications satellite.
The launch was the first to use a new set of second- and
third-stage engines. Development of those engines was accelerated
last year after two Proton launches failed in July and October. Both
failures were traced to faulty welds that allowed contaminants to
enter the turbopumps of the booster's second-stage engines, triggering
fires that destroyed the boosters.
The Proton returned to flight in February, using older but
carefully-inspected engines. The booster flew successfully three
times before Tuesday's launch.
The successful launch was a key step towards next month's
launch of the Zvezda service module for ISS. The launch had been
delayed several months in the wake of the Proton launch failures last
year, and both Russian and American officials wanted the Proton to
make several successful launches, including at least one with the new
engines, prior to the Zvezda launch.
Zvezda is currently planned for a launch between July 8 and 14
from Baikonur, Kazakhstan. An exact launch date will be set later
this month during a general designer's review in Moscow.
The launch was also the first successful flight of the Briz-M
(Breeze-M) upper stage. The upper stage, which provides increased
performance over the Blok-DM upper stage used in the past, was first
flown last July but never used, as the Proton booster was destroyed by
a second-stage engine failure before the upper stage could be fired.
Two more Proton launches are on the manifest before next
month's Zvezda launch. An Express 3A communications satellite and the
commercial Sirius 1 satellite are planned for separate launches in
late June.
Pegasus Launches Air Force Satellite
A Pegasus launch vehicle successfully placed into orbit a
small experimental Air Force satellite early Wednesday morning.
The Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus XL booster separated
from its L-1011 carrier aircraft and ignited its engines at 9:19 am
EDT (1319 UT) while flying over the Pacific Ocean off the coast from
Vandenberg Air Force Base, California.
Fourteen minutes after launch the booster deployed its
payload, the TSX-5 satellite, into an elliptical orbit ranging from
406 to 1706 km (251 to 1,056 mi.) inclined 69 degrees to the Equator.
Communications with the satellite were established shortly thereafter.
"The successful launch of the Air Force's TSX-5 satellite
represents a very promising beginning for what we hope will be a
highly successful mission for one of our most valued customers,"
Orbital chairman and CEO David Thompson said in a post-launch
statement.
The 250-kg (550-lb.) satellite, built by Orbital under
contract with the U.S. Air Force, contains two key experiments. One,
the Compact Environmental Anomaly Sensor (CEASE), is a scanner that
studies the space environment around the spacecraft, measuring
radiation and electrical charging.
The other experiment, Space Technology Research Vehicle-2
(STRV-2), is a test of advanced imaging technology, vibration
suppression techniques, and material science applications that may be
used in future space-based missile defense systems. It is sponsored
by the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization.
One of the overall goals of TSX-5 (Tri-Service Experiments
Mission 5) is to perform such flight experiments with a minimum of
government oversight. By handing over construction of the satellite
to a private contractor with a large contract incentive for a
successful flight, the Air Force hopes to reduce the costs of such
missions.
The launch is the 29th in the 10-year history of the Pegasus,
but the first since a Pegasus XL launched seven ORBCOMM satellites
December 4 of last year. The next Pegasus XL launch is tentatively
planned for late July, when the booster will launch the long-delayed
HETE-2 space science satellite from Kwajalein Missile Range in the
central Pacific.
NEAR Instrument Shut Down
One of the scientific instruments on NASA's NEAR Shoemaker
spacecraft has malfunctioned and been shut down, project officials
said Wednesday.
Engineers first noticed problems with the Near-Infrared
Spectrometer (NIS) on the spacecraft on May 13, when the instrument
inexplicably began to draw extra current from the spacecraft's power
supply and stopped collecting data. The instrument was turned off at
that time while engineers tried to understand the problem.
Technicians turned NIS on again on Monday for one minute to
collect housekeeping and diagnostic data from the instrument. That
test showed the problem persisted, and officials have now decided to
leave the instrument off indefinitely.
The loss of NIS is a blow to scientists, who had been
collecting a bounty of information about the mineral composition of
the asteroid Eros, which NEAR Shoemaker has been orbiting since
February 14. By the time NIS started malfunctioning, the instrument
had taken more than 58,000 spectra of the asteroid, covering 60
percent of its surface.
"We have a fantastic data set because, to this point, the
instrument has operated beautifully," said Cornell University
scientist Joseph Veverka, who managers the team that runs NIS and the
spacecraft's camera.
While the loss of NIS leaves large gaps in the coverage of the
asteroid, particularly of its southern hemisphere, Veverka said data
from other instruments, including its multispectral camera and an x-
ray and gamma-ray spectrometer that measures elemental compositions,
should help them fill in the gaps.
"It appears the surface is pretty uniform in terms of spectral
reflectance," Veverka said. "By correlating the NIS data from the
northern hemisphere with what we gather from the Multispectral Imager
and the X-ray/Gamma-Ray spectrometers, we should be able to address
the remaining questions of how different the south polar regions are
from what we've already seen."
NIS is not the only NEAR Shoemaker instrument to run into
recent problems. The x-ray and gamma-ray spectrometer shut itself
down unexpectedly May 25 for unspecified reasons, and was not restored
to full operations until four days later. However, it and the
remaining instruments are currently operating "extremely well," said
NEAR Shoemaker payload manager Robert Gold.
The spacecraft remains in a 50-km (31-mi.) circular orbit
around Eros. The next maneuver for NEAR Shoemaker is scheduled for
July 7, when the spacecraft lowers itself into a 35-by-50 km (22-by-31
mi.) elliptical orbit.
Report: Compton Reentry Linked to Mir
NASA's decision to bring down the Compton Gamma Ray
Observatory may have been linked with its desire for Russia to deorbit
the Mir space station, a news report claimed last Monday.
CBS News reported that NASA had briefed the White House about
the potential hazard posed to people on the ground should Mir reenter
uncontrollably, and may have decided to bring down Compton when it did
to demonstrate the "responsible" way to deal with a failing
spacecraft.
The CBS report said that NASA submitted a briefing document
titled "MIR Reentry USG [United States Government] Observation
Implementation Plan" to White House officials on March 15.
That report said that the space agency could not predict where
pieces of Mir would impact should it uncontrollably reenter, and that
enough pieces would survive the reentry to pose a "significant" hazard
to populated regions on the ground.
Because NASA has been urging Russia to abandon Mir and bring
it down in a controlled manner over the Pacific Ocean, the report
suggested that NASA might have decided to bring down Compton to
demonstrate to Russia it was willing to deorbit a functional satellite
in a controlled manner.
This could explain why NASA decided to bring down Compton
after one of its three gyros failed last December, despite the
existence of backup plans that would have allowed a controlled reentry
with no functioning gyros that would be nearly as safe as Sunday's
successful reentry. Scientists involved with the mission said they
were repeatedly puzzled and mystified why NASA chose their current
path.
NASA officials said they decided to bring down Compton solely
for reasons of safety. "Prolonging this mission would have posed an
unacceptable and increasing risk to human life," Al Diaz, director of
NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, said last Sunday.
One flaw in this argument, however, is that Mir is in no
danger of reentering -- controlled or uncontrolled -- any time in the
foreseeable future. The station was reoccupied in April after a
seven-month hiatus, and its orbit has been reboosted.
While the current Mir crew is scheduled to return to Earth
later this month, the Western company leasing the station plans to
send another crew to the station later this year, with a third mission
tentatively planned for early next year.
Hale-Bopp Observations Give Clues to Its Origin
Newly-released observations of comet Hale-Bopp indicate that
it formed much farther from the Sun than previously thought,
astronomers said at a conference Monday.
A team of astronomers led by S. Alan Stern of the Southwest
Research Institute (SwRI) took spectra of the comet at ultraviolet
wavelengths during a sounding rocket flight in late March of 1997,
when the comet was at the perihelion of its orbit around the Sun.
Those spectra revealed the existence of the noble element
argon, the first time it has been detected in a comet. Noble gases
like argon have weak spectral signals; argon was detected in Hale-Bopp
thought a combination of advanced instrumentation and the brightness
of the comet. "The detection of argon would not have been possible
except for Hale-Bopp's unusually high brightness," said coinvestigator
David Slater of SwRI.
The argon discovery is of considerable scientific importance.
Since argon and other noble elements don't combine chemically with
other constituents, their presence in comets implies they have been
these since the comet formed in the early history of the solar system.
Moreover, the low sublimation temperatures of noble elements
allow scientists to gauge the temperatures that the comets have
experienced throughout their history -- the lack of a particular noble
gas, for example, implies that the comet has been warmed at some point
in its history above the sublimation temperature of that element.
"Noble gases are thermal probes of comets," said Stern.
Stern's group found that Hale-Bopp has plenty of argon --
twice as much as predicted from cosmochemical abundances. This led
them to conclude that, save for a few brief passages through the inner
solar system, Hale-Bopp has never been warmed above the sublimation
temperature of argon, about 40 kelvins (-233 degrees Celsius, -387
degrees Fahrenheit).
In addition, the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE)
spacecraft failed to detect another noble gas, neon, in Hale-Bopp.
Neon has a lower sublimation temperature, 15 to 20 kelvins (-258 to -
253 degrees Celsius, -432 to -423 degrees Fahrenheit), leading
astronomers to conclude that the comet likely formed at temperatures
between about 20 and 35 kelvins.
That finding is significant since most comets in Oort Cloud,
from which Hale-Bopp came, were believed to originally form near
Jupiter and were then kicked out by the planet's powerful gravity.
However, temperatures there were warmer than 40 kelvins, implying
instead that the comet formed farther out in the solar system.
"Our results indicate that Hale-Bopp was likely formed in the
Uranus-Neptune zone," said Stern. It was later ejected into the Oort
cloud by the gravity of either planet which, while smaller than
Jupiter, are still massive enough to move comets out there.
An alternative, but less likely, explanation is that the
protoplanetary disk from which Hale-Bopp formed was colder than
current models predict. That would allow Hale-Bopp to have formed
closer to Jupiter.
Data from the Galileo probe that plunged into Jupiter's
atmosphere in 1995 revealed that the planet's atmosphere has two to
three times the abundances of noble gases, including argon, as
predicted by theory. Scientists who published the results last
November in the journal Nature speculated that the protoplanetary disk
was colder than originally thought.
However, those high concentrations of noble gases could also
be explained if the planet was bombarded by objects like Hale-Bopp
that were enriched in noble elements.
Stern has proposed additional sounding rocket flights in 2002
and 2003 to look for argon in other comets, including Encke, an old
comet which should have little, if any argon, and Macholz-1, a long-
period comet which may still retain some noble elements. A NASA-
funded ultraviolet spectrograph will also fly on Rosetta, an ESA
mission to study comet Wirtanen later this decade.
The findings released Monday at a meeting of the American
Astronomical Society in Rochester, New York, have been submitted for
publication in the journal Astrophysical Journal Letters.
U.S. Removes Quotas on Ukrainian Launches
The U.S. government has removed quotas on the launches of
commercial spacecraft on Ukrainian launch vehicles, President Bill
Clinton announced Monday.
The announcement ends a commercial trade agreement between the
United States and Ukraine that limited the number of American
commercial spacecraft that could be launched on Ukrainian launch
vehicles between 1996 and 2001.
"This decision eliminates launch quotas and gives U.S. firms
greater opportunity to enter into commercial space launch joint
ventures with Ukrainian partners without limit," Clinton said in a
statement.
The quotas were originally enacted to protect the American
launch industry from competition that could potentially offer launches
far below the market rate for domestic boosters. Similar launch
quotas had previously been enacted for Russian and Chinese boosters.
Clinton made the move in large part because of the steps
Ukraine had taken on missile nonproliferation. The decision to remove
the quotas, Clinton said, "reflects Ukraine's steadfast commitment to
international nonproliferation norms."
The move to eliminate the quotas is in large part a symbolic
step because Ukrainian launch vehicles have not been in high demand.
The quotas allowed five commercial launches to geosynchronous orbit,
plus an additional 11 as part of the multinational Sea Launch venture,
managed by American aerospace firm Boeing.
However, to date Sea Launch has conducted only three flights
using the Ukrainian-built Zenit 3SL booster, including a March launch
that failed to place its payload into orbit. Other commercial
interest in the Zenit and the smaller Tsyklon booster has also been
slight.
However, last year Ukraine and Brazil signed an agreement that
would allow Tsyklon launches from Brazil's Alcantara launch site,
favorably located near the Equator. Sea Launch plans to resume
flights this summer as well, as it begins to work on a backlog of
about 20 launches.
The end of the launch quotas was greeted with approval by
Boeing. "We are pleased with the government's action," said Jim
Albaugh, president of Boeing's Space and Communications Group. "We
believe it is the right policy, particularly in light of Ukraine's
strong relationship with the United States. Ukraine has been a solid
business partner in our Sea Launch program and we look forward to
continuing our commercial collaboration."
Supermassive Black Holes Tied to Galaxy Formation
The growth of supermassive black holes in the hearts of many
galaxies is closely tied to the formation of those galaxies,
astronomers said Monday.
Astronomers reported at a meeting of the American Astronomical
Society in Rochester, New York the discovery of more than a dozen new
supermassive black holes -- objects a million to over a billion times
as massive as the Sun -- bringing the total number of such objects to
over 30.
This sample of black holes is now large enough to do
meaningful statistical analysis, astronomers said, turning up some
surprising correlations between the mass of the black holes and
characteristics of their host galaxies.
Karl Gebhardt of the Lick Observatory said he found close
relationship between the mass of the black hole and the average
velocity of stars as they move around the center. This was surprising
because most stars in a galaxy are far enough away from the black hole
not to feel its gravitational effects.
"More massive black holes live in stars whose stars move
faster," said Gebhardt. "They can move fast for two reasons: first,
if a galaxy is very massive; and second, if it collapsed more than
average when it formed."
John Kormendy of the University of Texas noted that
supermassive black holes have been discovered in every galaxy looked
at to date with a large central bulge. In nearly every case the black
hole has the same relative mass, about 0.2 percent that of the
galactic bulge. By contrast, galaxies that lack a central bulge, like
nearby M33, don't have a supermassive black hole, bolstering
explanations that tie black hole formation to galaxy formation.
This suggests to Kormendy and colleagues that the growth of
black holes took place during the galaxy formation process, as the
black hole fed on the same streams of gas and dust from which the
galaxy formed. When the black hole reached a critical mass, physical
processes as yet unknown stopped the inflow of gas, ending the growth
of the black hole.
Astronomers rejected an alternative explanation that suggests
that black holes came first in a "standard" size, and then regulate
galaxy formation, citing both the star velocity and black hole mass
data as arguments against that explanation.
This hypothesis also explains why quasars -- brilliant,
mysterious objects linked in the past to supermassive black holes --
shine so brightly. "The black hole feeding that makes the black
hole's mass grow is also what makes the quasar shine," said Kormendy.
"A quasar is the brilliant signature of the fueling and building of
the central black hole."
"These results are a catalyst to help tie together many lines
of investigation on galaxy formation into a more believable and
coherent picture," Kormendy added.
Astronomers don't yet have any good models to explain the
exact correlation between black hole mass and average star velocity,
or why black holes rarely grow to masses larger than 0.2 percent of
the galactic bulge. "This is what we need to do next," said Gebhardt.
The large number of supermassive black hole discoveries is due
in large part to the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS), an
instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope that allows astronomers to
detect the Doppler shifts of emission lines indicative of rapidly-
increasing velocities of stars in the immediate vicinity of a black
hole.
One such example presented at the meeting was the discovery of
a black hole 190 million times the mass of the Sun located in the
center of the galaxy NGC 3998, 70 million light years from the Earth.
The STIS data shows a distinctive double-arched map of velocities
versus distance from the galactic center -- "the McDonald's of
velocity curves," said Linda Dressel of the Space Telescope Science
Institute.
While astronomers can measure the mass of these black holes,
their other characteristics continue to elude astronomers. However,
University of Colorado astronomer Christopher Reynolds proposed at the
meeting a way to measure black hole rotation by studying the change in
shape of iron emission lines at x-ray wavelengths.
Reynolds said this technique would work best with a proposed
x-ray telescope, Constellation-X, that NASA is planning for launch
later in the decade. Constellation-X will have the additional
collecting area needed for detect the subtle changes in the iron
emission lines caused by black hole rotation.
Reynolds held out some hope, though, that one current orbiting
x-ray observatory, ESA's XMM-Newton, might be able to detect this
effect. "If nature is extremely kind, maybe we can begin to see these
effects with XMM," he said.
House Committee Approves NASA Budget
The House Appropriations Committee approved its version of
NASA's fiscal year 2001 budget Wednesday, making no changes to a
subcommittee's version that cut more than $300 million from the
agency's original request.
The full committee approved by voice vote an overall
appropriations bill that includes funding for the Departments of
Veteran Affairs and Housing and Urban Development as well as
independent agencies such as NASA. The bill goes on to the full House
of Representatives for its consideration later this month.
The committee made no changes to the NASA portion of the
appropriations bill approved by a subcommittee last month. The bill
includes $13.7 billion for NASA in fiscal year 2001, which starts
October 1 of this year, $112 million more than in fiscal year 2000 but
$321 million less than requested by the President in February.
Hardest hit by those cuts was NASA's Space Launch Initiative,
a five-year, $4.5-billion program to develop the technologies needed
to support a 2005 competition that would select a privately-developed
next-generation human-rated launch vehicle to be ready by the end of
the decade. The House cut nearly all the $300 million requested by
the space agency for the program in 2001. Also hit by the cuts was
NASA's "Living with a Star" program, a $20-million effort to begin
long-term in-depth studies of the Sun.
Rep. Allan Mollohan (D-WV), ranking minority member of the
subcommittee that made the initial cuts, offered an amendment to the
full committee to restore $300 million to NASA's budget for the Space
Launch Initiative and Living with a Star programs. However, the
amendment failed largely along party lines, 23 to 22.
The committee did approve an amendment by Rep. George
Nethercutt (R-WA), that "the Committee is aware of continuing concerns
within the research community about NASA support for Research and
Analysis (R&A) activities," according to a House press release, but
offers no new funds for the space agency.
The subcommittee's version of the bill had included a
provision encouraging the full committee or the full House to include
funding for a $40-million alternative access program that would
support efforts to provide additional access to the International
Space Station through privately-developed vehicles. The committee did
not act on that recommendation, however.
The full House will now take up the appropriations bill,
likely later this month. Congress is working on the 2001 budget at a
pace about two months ahead of last year, in an effort to get it and
other legislation done in time to adjourn several weeks before the
November elections.
While the budget is still a long way from completion -- the
Senate has yet to take any action on it -- if no changes are made,
President Clinton could veto the bill. Reuters quoted a letter to
Congress from White House Budget Director Jacob Lew stating that
current level of cuts to NASA's budget as well as other agencies
included in the bill could trigger a veto.
Company to Fly First Web Server in Space
A startup satellite company announced Saturday it is
partnering with one of the world's leading computer companies to put
what it claims to be the first Web server in orbit.
SkyCorp said it will fly an Apple Macintosh G4 computer in an
experimental satellite it is planning to deploy from the space shuttle
during a flight next year. The announcement was made Saturday at the
Silicon Valley Space Enterprise Symposium in San Jose, a conference
sponsored by the Space Frontier Foundation that brought together space
entrepreneurs and potential investors.
"This Web server will utilize standard computer technology,
modified for space," said Dennis Wingo, CEO of SkyCorp. "Apple
Computer has agreed to provide hardware and technical support to
SkyCorp for this venture."
Users would be able to access the server using wireless
networking protocols, including a SkyCorp-developed variant of Apple's
existing AirPort wireless networking technology, as the satellite
passed overhead. The server would largely contain technology and
hardware test data.
Wingo, a veteran of various space projects, flew Macintosh II
computers on three shuttle missions, STS-46, -57, and -63, in the
early 1990s. He says that, to the best of his knowledge, these are
the only Macs to have flown in space.
In 1998 NASA and SPACEHAB did implement a system that allowed
researchers to get "Web-like" access to data from their experiments on
the shuttle. However, that system used routers on the shuttle and the
ground to transfer data which could then be accessed by FTP, rather
than a Web server on the shuttle itself.
However, the primary purpose of the satellite mission is not
to place a Web server in orbit but to test SkyCorp's satellite
assembly technology. The company is developing technologies to
assemble satellites in orbit that would be as fully-functional as
existing satellites, but at a small fraction of the mass and cost.
The difference is that satellites today must be able to handle
the high vibrations and accelerations of launch itself, even though
the satellite will never again feel those forces once in orbit.
"About 70-90 percent of satellite costs go into launch ruggedization,"
said Wingo.
SkyCorp, based in Huntsville, Alabama, is currently
negotiating a memorandum of understanding with NASA to fly components
of a satellite on a shuttle mission next year. The satellite,
containing the Web server, would be assembled in orbit by the shuttle
crew and then deployed out the shuttle.
If that test flight is a success, it opens the way to building
large constellations of such satellites, which could be assembled by
crews on the shuttle, International Space Station, and Mir. In the
case of ISS, for example, Wingo notes that the satellites could be
assembled within the station and then deployed out the airlock of
Kibo, the Japanese research module, which features a robotic arm that
could remove the satellite from the airlock without the need for a
spacewalking astronaut.
By building inexpensive, superlightweight satellites in orbit,
Wingo believes it would be possible to build a satellite constellation
of the type proposed by satellite communications firm Teledesic for
less than 10 percent of Teledesic's cost, which has been estimated to
be at least $9 billion.
The Challenges of Hubble's Successor
A space telescope billed as the successor to the Hubble Space
Telescope won't fly until the end of the decade, two years later than
originally planned, because of the technical challenges involved.
However, the project scientist for NASA's Next Generation
Space Telescope (NGST) said last week that the project will fly a
prototype of the telescope that could conceivably be more powerful
than Hubble itself.
The NGST will be an eight-meter (315-inch) space telescope,
the largest ever placed in space. NASA plans to put NGST at the
Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, 1.5 million kilometers (900,000 miles)
from the Earth. From that position a single sunshade allows the
spacecraft to block light from the Sun and the Earth, keeping the
telescope dark and very cold.
Those cold temperatures are needed to allow NGST's three
instruments -- a visible and near-infrared camera, a multi-object
infrared spectrograph, and a mid-infrared camera-spectrograph -- to
work at infrared wavelengths of light. Those instruments will perform
a wide range of observations, from an examination of the early
universe to studies of galaxy, star, and planetary system formation to
searches for icy Kuiper Belt objects within our own solar system.
Those scientific goals, and the enormous promise of such a
powerful telescope, prompted a National Academy of Sciences panel last
month to rank the NGST as the nation's highest-priority astronomy
project for the coming decade.
These scientific goals have put a set of constraints on the
spacecraft and instrument design. Moreover, since no launch vehicle
has a payload shroud eight meters in diameter, the NGST's primary
mirror will have to be folded up or otherwise divided into smaller
segments, which are then assembled after launch into a single large
mirror.
NASA has been supporting the development of new mirror
technologies, ranging from thin mirrors supported on fiber ribs to
other mirrors made of the beryllium, to determine what technologies
would work best with NGST. Project scientist John Mather said this
week at least ten such studies are in progress.
While development of such a large, segmented mirror that could
be assembled on orbit initially looked daunting, Mather said the
studies are beginning to show good results. "Now it doesn't look so
impossible at all," he said.
However, the delays in developing these technologies have
pushed back the launch of NGST. Originally scheduled for launch in
2007, Mather said NASA is now planning a 2009 launch of NGST.
Another reason for the delay is to allow time for a pair of
flight demonstrations. The first, scheduled for October 2001 on
shuttle mission STS-112, will test the deployment of a one-third scale
model of the NGST's sunshade and boom from the shuttle's cargo bay.
The Inflatable Sunshade In Space (ISIS) experiment will use inflatable
structures to test the deployment, although Mather said inflatables
would not necessarily be used on NGST.
The second, and more ambitious test, would come a few years
later with the launch of Nexus, a 2.8-meter (110-inch) telescope
modeled after the NGST. Nexus would also be placed in the L2 Lagrange
point and test telescope technologies, including the ability of the
telescope's mirror to adjust its shape to get a proper image, avoiding
the problems with Hubble's improperly-formed mirror.
While Mather said Nexus is intended primarily for a yearlong
series of engineering tests, he left open the possibility of using the
telescope for an extended period of time for scientific uses, although
it will not have much in the way of instrumentation. "It's not
designed to give us a wonderful scientific capability," he said.
However, astronomers will be tempted to used Nexus if
possible, as its 2.8-meter mirror would be somewhat larger than
Hubble's 2.4-meter (94-inch) mirror, and would also be better able to
carry out infrared observations than Hubble.
If all goes well with Nexus, NASA would then move ahead with
NGST, launch it on a Delta 4-class EELV expendable booster in 2009 to
begin its 5-10 year mission.
NASA is currently weighing two possible designs for NGST, one
submitted by Lockheed Martin and the other by a TRW and Ball Aerospace
team. Those contractors will soon begin work on their final proposals,
and NASA will select one of them in September 2001 for the NGST
contract.
Total cost of the NGST is estimated to be about $2 billion,
although this figure includes contributions from the Canadian Space
Agency and European Space Agency, both of whom are expected to
participate on the project.
That cost cap will weigh strongly in the minds of project
officials while working on the project, Mather said. "We're governed
by what is feasible as much as by what's exciting," he said.
Astronomers Weigh Universe with Galactic Map
Astronomers announced Wednesday that they have created a
three-dimensional map of 100,000 galaxies in the universe, providing
an independent measure of the mass density of the universe.
The first results of the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey, the
largest survey of galaxies yet performed, were released Wednesday at a
meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Rochester, New York.
The survey was conducted with a wide-field spectrograph,
capable of seeing an area of the night sky two degrees across -- four
times the diameter of the Moon -- at a given time, hence the "2dF"
name. The spectrograph can take spectra of 400 galaxies
simultaneously and 3,000 over the course of a single night, allowing
astronomers to measure the redshift of the galaxies as they move away
from Earth, and hence their distance. The observations were made with
the Anglo-Australian Telescope (AAT) in Australia.
This information, coupled with existing images of the
galaxies, has been combined into a 3-D map with a volume of some 13
billion billion cubic light-years, covering 1/20th of the night sky
out to a distance of 4 billion light-years.
The results confirm existing concepts of the structure of the
universe, where galaxies are combined into huge superclusters and
stretched out along long filaments, with huge areas devoid of any
galaxies. The origin of these structures dates back to the Big Bang
itself, astronomers said.
"The seeds of these colossal structures originated on
subatomic scales in the first instants of time, when the expanding
universe began," said John Peacock of the Institute for Astronomy at
the University of Edinburgh. "There were small ripples in the density
of matter, which can still be seen in the cosmic microwave background.
Over more than 10 billion years, gravity amplified the ripples,
causing galaxies and superclusters to grow."
The map also allowed astronomers to compute the mass density
of the universe. "Near large concentrations of galaxies, the
expansion of the universe is slowed down by the galaxies'
gravitational pull," said Galvin Dalton of Oxford University. "This
allows up to estimate the mass of these concentrations. By analyzing
the whole survey we can directly measure the mass of the universe."
The results confirm other findings from supernova data that
the universe lacks the mass density needed to stop its expansion, and
that the expansion may actually be accelerating due to the presence of
a "dark energy".
"The data are so far consistent with our universe falling well
short of the mass density required to arrest its current expansion,"
said Shaun Cole of the University of Durham, England. "Our
measurements are already the most precise ever and will only get
better as the survey proceeds."
Astronomers plan to map a quarter-million galaxies with the
2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey by the end of 2001. The data will
complement another survey, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, which plans
to map a million galaxies using a New Mexico telescope over a five-
year period. "Giant redshift surveys like 2dF and Sloan will
transform the study of large-scale structure into a precision science,"
said David Weinberg, an Ohio State University astronomer
participating in the Sloan survey.
There will be some overlap between the two surveys, but
astronomers say such an overlap will actually be beneficial. "Every
scientific result needs independent confirmation and cross-checking,"
said Matthew Colless, coordinator of the 2dF survey. "When you are
talking about the fate of the universe, a second opinion is essential!"
SpaceViews Event Horizon
June TBD Delta 2 launch of the GPS 2R-5 satellite from Cape
Canaveral, Florida
June 22 Proton launch of the Express 3A communications
satellite from Baikonur, Kazakhstan
June 26 "Going Public 2000" space tourism symposium,
Washington DC
June 28 Cosmos-3M launch of a Russian military satellite from
Plesetsk, Russia
June 29 Proton launch of the Sirius 1 satellite radio
spacecraft from Baikonur, Kazakhstan
June 29 Atlas 2A launch of the TDRS-H NASA communications
satellite from Cape Canaveral, Florida.
Other News
Europa's Life-Supporting Faults: Friction between moving blocks of
ice on the surface of Jupiter's moon Europa could create pockets of
liquid water and perhaps support life, scientists reported in last
week's issue of Nature. Planetary scientists Eric Gaidos and Francis
Nimmo argued that short-lived pockets of liquid water could exist
close enough to the surface of Europa to allow sunlight to penetrate
them providing sufficient energy to support life. Those pockets of
water would be created as blocks of ice move along linear features
believed to be strike-slip faults: the friction of the motion,
combined with salts thought to exist in the ice that lower the
freezing point of water, would allow the ice to melt. Sunlight
reaching some of those pockets of water would be sufficient to support
primitive bacteria until the pocket froze shut again, tens of years
after it formed.
Arianespace Wins ISS Resupply Contract: Arianespace has won a large
contract with the European Space Agency to launch resupply spacecraft
to the International Space Station, the company announced last week.
Arianespace will supply nine Ariane 5 launches, each placing into
orbit an Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) designed by ESA. The ATV
will dock with the station and provide up to 7.5 tons of food, water,
and supplies, as well as help refuel and reboost the station and
remove wastes. The nine launches of the ATV will take place from late
2003 through 2014, at a total cost of over 1 billion euros (US$962
million).
A Stormy Week for the Sun: A powerful solar storm last week generated
brilliant aurora displays for some on Earth, but caused no other
problems on Earth or in space. On Tuesday spacecraft, including the
ESA-NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), observed a massive
coronal mass ejection (CME) associated with a pair of solar flares
that erupted less than an hour apart on June 6. A third, similar
solar flare was observed the following day. By Thursday observers on
Earth reported bright aurora displays, but there were no reports of
power outages or spacecraft problems often associated with such
powerful storms. Another CME was observed on the Sun Saturday, which
should lead to renewed auroral displays by Tuesday.
Meteorites and Solar System Origins: While one group of scientists
was severing a link between one class of meteorites and the origin of
the Earth, another group found evidence in another meteorite that
liquid water existed in the solar system as little as two million
years after its formation. In a paper published in the June 2 issue
of the journal Science, researchers found subtle differences between
the ratios of elements in enstatite chondrites and the Earth and Moon.
Enstatites had previously shown a close correlation to the composition
of the Earth's crust, leading some to believe that the meteorites and
the Earth formed from the same material, a claim the new results now
show to be invalid. In the following issue of Science, another group
of scientists found evidence of halite -- rock salt -- in the Zag
meteorite that fell in Morocco in 1998. The halite in Zag, formed by
evaporating water, is only two millions years younger than the
formation of the solar system itself, indicating that liquid water may
have been present far earlier in the history of the solar system.
That water could have played key roles in everything from the geology
of the asteroids to the possible early formation of life.
Polaris the Giant Star: Polaris, the north star that has guided
navigators for centuries, is a variable star more than 40 times the
size of the Sun, scientists announced last week. Direct measurements
of the size of Polaris, made with the Navy Prototype Optical
Interferometer (NPOI), show Polaris has a diameter 46 times that of
the Sun. Polaris had previously been known to be a Cepheid, a type of
variable star, and the results confirm speculation that Polaris is an
unusual type of Cepheid, where different parts of its outer layers
move back and forth at different times. The NPOI is a Y-shaped array
of 0.5-meter (20-inch) telescopes located outside of Flagstaff,
Arizona. Light from the telescopes is carefully combined in a central
facility, creating a virtual telescopes with the resolution -- but not
the light-gathering capability -- of a single 38-meter (125-foot)
telescope, making measurements like the size of Polaris possible.
*** Articles ***
An Interview with Dreamtime's President
by Jeff Foust
A few years ago, a startup company that obtained $100 million
in investment from a wide range of well-known companies was in and of
itself big news, regardless of what it was going to do. Today,
though, in the fast-moving high-rolling world of the Internet economy,
such investments, while still not commonplace, are far less newsworthy
than in the recent past.
Dreamtime, however, got its share of media attention June 2
when it announced it had been selected by NASA to provide a suite of
multimedia services for the space agency at no cost to NASA. Starting
with digitizing NASA's extensive archives, dating back to NASA's
predecessor NACA early this century, Dreamtime will then provide high-
definition television (HDTV) cameras for all of NASA's centers, the
shuttle fleet, and the International Space Station.
Dreamtime, in turn, plans to make money through three lines of
business: selling high-resolution photos and video digitized from
NASA's archives, creating an interactive Web portal using that
multimedia content, and creating documentaries using the HDTV and
other multimedia content. The company is backed with $100 million in
investments from partner companies, including aerospace firm Lockheed
Martin, broadband Internet provider Excite@Home, marketing company
Omnicom, and Hollywood agency Endeavor.
Dreamtime was founded by two former Excite@Home executives,
Bill Foster and Carleton Ruthling. To learn a little more about
Dreamtime's plans, SpaceViews editor Jeff Foust interviewed Ruthling,
president of Dreamtime, in San Francisco last Friday. Ruthling, who
has a Ph.D. in space physics and has worked in both the aerospace and
Internet industries, provided some insights into Dreamtime's plans
during that interview, excerpts of which are provided below.
SpaceViews: Part of the mythology of startups is what can be called
the "napkin moment", when the business plan or key idea behind the
startup is sketched out on the proverbial napkin. What was
Dreamtime's napkin moment?
Ruthling: The moment actually began without me. It began with Bill
Foster, and the RFP [request for proposals] that NASA put out for
digital multimedia. He's a terrific visionary, and he saw an
opportunity there, saw that people were excited about space, and he
started talking to different people in the company about it. We
started talking about it, and since I have a background in space as
well as the Internet, we were able to extend it a little further and
submit a proposal.
I think NASA was pretty surprised; it wasn't the kind of proposal I
think they were expecting. We got past the first round, when they
went from 12 companies to four, and then down to one. During that
process we were able to get other partners involved, like Omnicom,
Lockheed Martin, Excite@Home, and Endeavor, and we put together the
whole vision. So that's the genesis of it in effect.
SV: You've just started to work with NASA's bureaucracy. Are they
committed to doing things a little differently when working with you?
R: Actually, I dealt with them for a number of years, since I came
from the aerospace industry. If there's once agency in the
government I would like to work with, it would be NASA. I think NASA
is the most forward-looking of the agencies, and they're the best able
to pull something like this off. In working with them over the past
month, you could see lightbulbs go off, the synergies start to happen.
SV: Were there any people at NASA particularly interested in or
excited about your proposal?
R: The multimedia team was ecstatic. By nature of government, you
can't afford to get the latest and greatest in technology. All of a
sudden, you get it standardized across the agency. They're going to
have the best technology in the world now. What other company do you
know about that has in every single center the best HDTV equipment
around? I think they're very excited about it and they're taking
great pride that they're pulling this off at no increased costs.
SV: Dreamtime has stressed the educational as well as entertainment
benefits of creating this digital multimedia archive. Do you plan to
work with NASA's educational offices to create synergies and make sure
you're not duplicating efforts?
R: The education component is going to be very important and
personally very satisfying, getting kids interested in math and
science. We're in the process of meeting with people now about this.
We have some ideas, and we've been talking with them preliminarily.
Now that we have the contract signed -- and keep in mind that it was
signed just a few weeks ago -- next week is when we start discussions
and get a little deeper. It's great to see NASA excited, because I
know how much they have to offer, and if we can help unleash that a
little bit, that would be great. I want them on my team.
SV: Have you prioritized what content you're going to be making
available first on your portal site? Will it be shuttle-specific,
historical, or some mix?
R: It's a multi-year plan, so over the years it will be as you say,
historical areas, shuttle, and station; education is going to be a
major part of this effort. So we're taking a long-term view of this
effort.
SV: There's a huge amount of photos and videos in NASA's archives.
Will it all be digitized, or will there be some selection process?
R: It will not all be digitized; basically it doesn't make any sense
to digitize it all. There's stuff in there that would bore people to
tears. There's also an amazing amount of incredible content in there,
too: pictures capturing history since the early 1900s.
SV: When do you plan to start putting the HDTV cameras on the station,
shuttles, and in the centers?
R: We're working on that schedule right now. We would like to see
progress over the next six to 12 months, installing cameras in the
NASA centers, preferably three of the centers. We're already starting
to talk to NASA about integrating the cameras into the shuttles.
SV: What will the cameras in the centers be doing?
R: The cameras in the centers will be helping the research scientists;
for example, as they do safety tests for the astronauts, crash tests,
any of these kinds of things. It will be a tremendous resource to
help them.
SV: Will you have any role in NASA's planetary missions, such as
future Mars missions and the Cassini mission to Saturn?
R: Basically, this is the NASA multimedia deal, so we would also want
to provide those images.
SV: There are a number of potential competitors out there for you:
SPACEHAB and Energia are planning a module for the station that will
include a broadcast studio, and who knows what MirCorp could do on Mir
in the near future. Have you thought about your competitive posture
in this respect, especially since you may not be the first to return
video, or even HDTV video, from space?
R: I think competition is very important, without it, companies get
fat and lazy. So competition is a good thing, we just plan to work
with our partners and execute and perform. We're confident that with
NASA as our partner, we're at a tremendous advantage. We're ready to
start the race, and we're not afraid of competition.
SV: It's a tight job market out there; does the fact that you're doing
something space-related provide a particular cachet that makes it
easier to recruit people?
R: There's no doubt about that. I personally think the
aerospace/Internet market is very untapped. I think that's a
tremendous advantage to us. We've received a ton of resumes already.
People basically love space and love NASA.
SV: What about your own personal interests in space? Can you trace
back how that started and how that led to where you are today?
R: It's probably more due to being a boy than anything else; a
fascination with rockets and aircraft. My father was a pilot in the
Air Force, my brother was also a pilot in the Air Force and flew B-
52s, and so I was already attracted to aerospace. I got an aerospace
engineering degree as an undergrad, and a masters degree too. I
worked for TRW for two years doing satellite communications, then went
to Stanford and studied space plasma physics. It's been a continuous
fascination for me all along, probably branded into me when I was
younger.
SV: Your career did take a detour into the Internet world with
Excite@Home. Does it feel good to be doing something that's both
Internet and space related?
R: Absolutely. Basically it comes back to not being able to escape
your roots, in a sense. The Internet is really simply a delivery
technology and it's been great to look at the different distribution
channels with which the Internet can be used. Being able to
incorporate that into space history, and trying to capture it, I think
is going to be quite good.
SV: You seemed to have convinced your partners you can create a
profitable company just through your three lines of business.
R: Take a look at just Web portals. Take a look at their valuations:
some portals out there have billions of dollars in valuation. The
Internet is an amazing place, there's no doubt about that. If you
look at the pure content that NASA has, and the excitement of space --
people are coming out of the woodwork, everyone I know is saying, "Oh,
I'm a secret space fan, I'd love to work for you," -- there's a lot of
desire for this.
SV: The return for your investors is a few years down the road,
presumably. I take it your partners are aware and comfortable with
that?
R: These are not day traders. The partners that we're dealing with
are extremely long-term: these are people who are used to big
fluctuations, but keep their eyes on the prize.
We need to manage expectations. It's a long-term project, and people
are excited about it now. We need to focus on the long term that
we're doing the right thing, getting the product out to the public,
getting HDTV cameras installed at NASA to help safety and scientists.
If we achieve these things, we're making progress and we'll be happy.
It's a journey of a thousand miles, and we're are fairly confident we
have things worked out, a step at a time.
========
This has been the June 12, 2000, issue of SpaceViews.
SpaceViews is also available on the Web at:
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