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标 题: SpaceViews -- 2000 May 29(转载)
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【 原文由 hitsma@0451.com 所发表 】
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S P A C E V I E W S
Issue 2000.22
2000 May 29
http://www.spaceviews.com/2000/0529/
*** News ***
Shuttle Wraps Up Successful Mission to Space Station
NASA Moving Ahead with Plans to Deorbit Compton Observatory
First Atlas 3A Launch a Success
House Committee Trims NASA Budget Request
Mir Crew to Come Home in June
Astronomers Get a New View of Mercury
Galileo Completes Ganymede Flyby
Legislation Could Ease Satellite Export Woes
NASA Receives X-37 Prototype
SpaceViews Event Horizon
Other News
*** Articles ***
Searching for Other Worlds
*** News ***
Shuttle Wraps Up Successful Mission to Space Station
The space shuttle Atlantis glided to a successful landing
early Monday morning at the Kennedy Space Center, wrapping up a
mission NASA officials said "met or exceeded" their expectations.
The shuttle landed at 2:20 am EDT (0620 UT) Monday at runway
15 at the Kennedy Space Center, a little over nine days and 20 hours
after lifting off on May 19. The landing, like the mission in
general, was deemed a success with no problems reported.
"Congratulations to you and the crew for a successful mission
to the International Space Station," mission control told commander
Jim Halsell as the shuttle rolled to a stop on the runway.
The STS-101 crew had prepared for a possible extra day in
orbit after forecasts called for rain and winds in the vicinity of the
landing site. However, the rain never materialized and winds, too
strong earlier in the evening to permit a landing, subsided in time
for a landing on the first of two attempts available that night.
During the mission the shuttle successfully docked with the
International Space Station, the first spacecraft to visit ISS since
the STS-96 mission a year ago. While docked the shuttle crew
performed a spacewalk to work on the station's exterior and spent
several days making repairs inside the station before undocking Friday
night.
Those repairs included the replacement of four batteries that
had failed or were failing inside the Russian-built Zarya module.
Astronauts also replaced smoke detectors, fire extinguishers,
electronics, and other components that head reached their end of their
design life or were otherwise not working.
The crew also transported more than a ton of supplies into the
station, ranging from bags of water to computer printers and exercise
equipment. Those supplies are intended for the first long-term crew,
which should be launched to the station late this year.
The shuttle also boosted the orbit of ISS during three
separate maneuvers last week. ISS's orbit is now nearly 44 km (27
mi.) higher than it was before the shuttle mission, counteracting
atmospheric drag that had been causing the orbit to slowly decay.
NASA shuttle managers and astronauts alike called the shuttle
mission a complete success, saying the crew met and even exceeded
their plans. "I couldn't be happier with the way this mission has
gone," Phil Engelauf, lead flight director, said late last week. "Our
accomplishments are at more than 100 percent for the flight."
"When we started this flight, our goals were to successfully
refurbish, stock, prepare, and boost the International Space Station,"
said Halsell in a post-flight press conference Monday morning. "In
that regard, I feel as commander, that we were completely successful
in our mission."
Three members of the STS-101 crew -- astronauts Susan Helms
and Jim Voss and Russian cosmonaut Yuri Usachev -- will return to the
station next year as the second long-term crew to live on ISS. They
found the experience of spending several days working in the station
extremely helpful.
"Susan and Yuri and I discussed the way that we thought we
would work together and live when we get up there," said Voss. "We
had a good chance here to work closely... and I think we discovered
what we already knew, that we will be a good team when we work
together in space."
One concern about the station resolved during the mission were
conditions within the modules. The crew of the last shuttle mission
to ISS, STS-96, reported some ailments, including headaches and
nausea, that were later attributed to poor air circulation within the
modules. However, improvements to the ventilation system between the
shuttle and station apparently resolved those problems.
Noise within the modules -- another concern about ISS -- was
also not a problem. Noise levels within ISS were measured at around
60 decibels, about the same as a normal conversation. "I did not use
my earplugs at all," said Helms. "I didn't even really notice the
noise."
The next shuttle mission, STS-106, will also feature a flight
by the shuttle Atlantis to ISS. Tentatively planned for early
September, STS-106 will complete the tasks originally intended for
STS-101 before that mission was split into two.
STS-106 is dependent on the Russian launch of the Zvezda
service module, currently planned for some time between July 8-14.
NASA Moving Ahead with Plans to Deorbit Compton Observatory
Despite a last-minute appeal by scientists to keep it in
orbit, NASA is moving ahead with plans to bring down the Compton Gamma
Ray Observatory on June 4, the space agency announced Friday.
A spokesperson at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center confirmed
with SpaceViews Friday afternoon that NASA was pressing ahead with
plans to deorbit the large spacecraft with a series of thruster burns
next week. Later Friday afternoon NASA issued a press release
confirming that report and providing additional details about the
deorbiting procedure.
After an engineering test burn on Sunday, May 28, the first in
a series of four maneuvers begins on the evening of Tuesday, May 30.
A second burn is scheduled for the following evening, with the last
two scheduled for the early morning hours of Sunday, June 4. Compton
will reenter the atmosphere over a remote region of the eastern
Pacific shortly after the last burn at 3:05 am EDT (0705 UT) June 4.
Each burn will last about 30 minutes.
The engineering test burn, as it was called, started at 3:44
pm EDT (1944 UT) Sunday afternoon. Compton fired its attitude control
thrusters four times between 4:00 and 4:30 pm EDT (2000 and 2030 UT)
and tested its orbit adjust thruster once in the same period. Each
test firing lasted just a few seconds, to make sure all the thrusters
were working properly.
"The thrusters behaved nominally and as expected," a Goddard
Space Flight Center spokesperson said. The thruster test also
verified the onboard commands the spacecraft must execute for each
maneuver.
NASA decided in March to bring down the 15,000-kg (33,000-lb.)
telescope after one of the three gyroscope used to provide attitude
control for the spacecraft failed last December. Agency officials
said they were concerned that if another gyro failed, they would not
be able to bring the spacecraft down safely, raising the possibility
that large debris -- weighing up to one ton -- could survive reentry
and fall on populated areas.
However, as first reported by SpaceViews May 8, a group of
scientists has argued against those deorbiting plans, claiming that
not only are NASA's claims of potential hazard if another gyro failed
exaggerated, but that it could be unsafe to try to bring down Compton
now, during the height of solar activity.
The manager of NASA's Compton deorbiting efforts told
SpaceViews earlier this month that any solar flares that take place
during the deorbiting process should not pose a problem, as engineers
have taken into account the various effects of a flare, ranging from
increased atmospheric drag on the spacecraft to additional thermal and
radiation exposure.
Scientists continue to argue, though, that there's no reason
to deorbit Compton, whose instruments continue to return data after
more than nine years in orbit, when alternatives exist. They note the
existence of a control mode that would allow NASA to safety bring down
the telescope even if no gyros are functioning.
That "zero-gyro" reentry mode would have a 1-in-4 million
chance of injuring someone, worse than the 1-in-29 million odds from
the planned two-gyro reentry but much better than the 1-in-1,000 odds
that NASA has been quoting for an uncontrolled reentry.
However, those scientists have all but conceded defeat in
their efforts to keep Compton in orbit. "We've tried everything,"
said Jim Ryan, a physics professor at the University of New Hampshire
and one of the most vocal advocates for keeping the observatory in
orbit.
Ryan said he and colleagues wrote letters to members of
Congress, trying to get Congress to scrutinize NASA's decision to
bring down the telescope. However, that letter-writing campaign,
which started in earnest early this month, may have been too late.
"We needed to start about a month earlier," Ryan said. "If we started
sooner, we might have won this battle."
Another problem, Ryan believes, is the resistance many
scientists have to lobbying Congress. "Scientists would rather be
hunched over their desks learning about the universe" than contacting
members of Congress, Ryan said.
Now Ryan, a co-investigator on the COMPTEL instrument, is
planning for the end of the mission. Compton's four science
instruments have been placed into a low-power mode, and will be shut
off entirely prior to the first deorbiting maneuver Tuesday evening.
When he started his efforts to keep Compton in orbit, Ryan
said he had one ideal in mind: "If you speak the truth, people will
rally to your side and you will prevail." Now, though, he finds
another aphorism more appropriate: "You can't fight City Hall."
[Editor's Note: for more information about the upcoming end of
Compton, check out our special section on the web at
http://www.spaceviews.com/features/compton/ . We'll be updating this
throughout the week with news and other features as the spacecraft's
mission comes to an end.]
First Atlas 3A Launch a Success
After four scrubbed launch attempts, an Atlas 3A booster
finally lifted off Wednesday evening, May 24, on its inaugural flight,
successfully placing a European communications satellite into orbit.
The Atlas 3A lifted off at 7:10 pm EDT (2310 UT) Wednesday
from pad 36B at Cape Canaveral, Florida. The launch was delayed just
over 90 minutes, mostly because of a boat and a plane wandered into
restricted zones downrange of the launch site.
When those obstructions were cleared, however, the launch
vehicle performed flawlessly, as its Russian-built RD-180 engines
boosted the rocket off the launch pad and the Atlas' Centaur upper
stage put the Eutelsat W4 satellite into a geosynchronous transfer
orbit.
"A successful inaugural launch is a joyous occasion for all of
the people who have worked so hard to make it a reality," said Mark
Albrecht, president of International Launch Services (ILS), the
international joint venture that markets the Lockheed Martin booster.
The launch was historic for two reasons. Not only was it the
first launch of the new Atlas 3 family of boosters, it's the first
time an American booster has used a Russian rocket engine. The RD-180
replaces the MA-5A engine and four solid-propellant strap-on boosters
used in the Atlas 2AS, giving the Atlas 3A about 10 percent additional
payload capacity over the Atlas 2AS.
The RD-180 was designed and built by NPO Energomash in Russia,
and is marketed by RD AMROSS, a joint venture between Energomash and
Pratt & Whitney in the U.S. RD-180 engines will also be manufactured
in the U.S. in the future, primarily for Atlas launches of military
payloads.
The Atlas 3A's payload, the Eutelsat W4 satellite, will
primarily be used to provide direct television broadcasts to Russia
for the Russian media group Media-Most. A secondary beam from the
satellite will provide television and broadband Internet access for
sub-Saharan Africa.
Lockheed Martin and ILS had planned to launch the rocket on
Monday, May 15. However, the initial launch attempt was postponed
when a downrange tracking radar in Bermuda failed. A second launch
attempt the next day was postponed because of high, rapidly-changing
upper-level winds.
A third launch attempt on Wednesday, May 17 was delayed by a
number of technical problems, including a timing error that stopped
the countdown just 29 seconds before liftoff that ended that night's
launch attempt. After the shuttle lifted off Friday, May 19, a fourth
launch attempt was conducted Saturday, May 20. That launch attempt
was pushed back to the end of a two-hour, 19-minute launch window when
dozens of fishing boats, participating in a tournament earlier in the
day, had to be escorted from restricted waters downrange from the
launch site. A software glitch a little over two minutes before
liftoff scrubbed this attempt.
The launch was previously scheduled for mid-April, but delayed
when engineers decided to inspect the satellite after concerns were
reported about defective seals in the propulsion system on it and
similar spacecraft. The spacecraft was inspected and cleared for
launch.
Lockheed Martin had hoped to launch the first Atlas 3A last
year, but was delayed by investigations into the Centaur upper stage.
The original payload for the first atlas 3 was to be the Telstar 7
spacecraft for Loral, but the company switched to the Ariane 4 last
summer, leaving the Atlas 3 without a payload until Eutelsat was
signed as a customer earlier this year.
House Committee Trims NASA Budget Request
A House appropriations subcommittee voted last week to trim
the NASA budget request for 2001 by over $300 million, but avoided the
disastrous cuts it proposed for the space agency a year ago.
The House Appropriations Committee subcommittee for the
Departments of the Veterans Affairs and Housing and Urban Development,
which also handles the budgets for independent agencies, approved a
budget of $13.7 billion for NASA for fiscal year 2001 during a markup
session Tuesday.
The budget is $112 million greater than the agency's fiscal
year 2000 budget, but $321 million less than what President Clinton
proposed when he submitted his budget request in February.
Most of the difference comes from the subcommittee's decision
to slash nearly all the funding from the Space Launch Initiative, a
$300-million effort to begin development of technologies for the next
generation of lower-cost reusable launch vehicles.
The FY2001 funding for the Space Launch Initiative was
intended to start a five-year, $4.5-billion program to develop the
technologies needed to support a 2005 competition that would select a
privately-developed next-generation human-rated launch vehicle to be
ready by the end of the decade.
The subcommittee's decision to cut funding for the Space
Launch Initiative was a called a "disappointment" by Art Stephenson,
director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, one the centers that
would benefit the most by the program.
"That initiative is absolutely essential to achieving one of
NASA's most critical assignments," said Stephenson, "which is to cut
the cost of access to space by orders of magnitude -- within 10 years
to one-tenth of today抯 cost, then to one-hundredth within 25 years."
There may be hope for some or all of the initiative, however.
The report issued by the subcommittee included an amendment offered by
Rep. Tom Delay (R-TX) "recognizing the merits of NASA's new
Alternative Access proposal," referring to a $40-million portion of
the Space Launch Initiative that would have supported private efforts
to provide cargo or crew access to the International Space Station.
The amendment "states that the Committee may provide funding
for these programs prior to final enactment of the bill," leaving an
opening for the full House Appropriations Committee, or the full
House, to add funding for this program.
The amendment may have extra power because it was proposed by
Delay, who, as House majority whip, is one of the most influential
members of Congress. How much of his influence Delay is willing to
exert to get the additional funding is unclear, though.
Other aspects of NASA's budget were left largely untouched by
the committee. The only other major change was a decision to cut the
$20-million "Living with a Star" program, a new NASA effort to monitor
the Sun with a fleet of existing and planned spacecraft, including
unspecified future missions that would utilize solar sails.
The subcommittee's cuts, while sharply hitting some programs,
are far less severe than when the same subcommittee did last July.
Then it slashed NASA's FY2000 budget request by $1.3 billion. Those
cuts, had they been enacted, would have devastated the space agency,
particularly its space science missions. However, by the end of the
often-byzantine budget process, the House and Senate had restored all
the of the funds that had been cut.
Supporters of NASA's budget are hoping for a similar outcome
from this year's budget process, which is just getting underway. "I
realize that the budget process is a long road with many steps along
the way," said Stephenson, "and I remain hopeful that this cut to the
initiative will be restored before the budget becomes final."
Mir Crew to Come Home in June
The two cosmonauts on the Russian space station Mir will
return to Earth in June, leaving the privately-supported station
unoccupied for at least a few months, the company that operates the
station said last week.
MirCorp, the Western form that is leasing Mir from the Russian
company Energia, said in a statement Monday, May 22 that cosmonauts
Sergei Zalyotin and Alexander Kalery will depart the station "as
scheduled" in mid-June.
While some media outlets described the crew's upcoming
departure as an "evacuation", company officials emphasized that the
crew was leaving the station according to their original plans. When
the crew was launched in early April, their mission was described to
last "at least 45 days", which would have put the end of the mission
no sooner than late May.
During their time on Mir Zalyotin and Kalery proved that the
station, which had been uninhabited since last August, could be
successfully rehabilitated and put to future commercial use. "The
cosmonauts inspected Mir in detail and confirmed the station is in
good shape," Chirinjeev Kathuria, one of MirCorp's investors, said.
"With minor continuing renovation, the station will be operational for
the long term."
"We have achieved all the technical milestones planned for
this crew's mission onboard the station," said MirCorp president
Jeffrey Manber. "We showed the world a new path into space, now it is
time to build on our success."
That "building" will be in the form of a second manned mission
to Mir, currently planned for some time this fall. A third mission is
also in the works for early next year, Kathuria added. Before the next
mission MirCorp plans to announce a number of "new strategic partners,
investors and customers," the company said in a press release.
One of those partnerships might be with the Italian company
Itali-Mir. MirCorp confirmed in a separate release that it was in
talks with Itali-Mir to send Carlo Vibert to Mir. Vibert is a former
European Space Agency employee who has already undergone some Mir-
related training in the past.
One Russian paper reported last week that the deal had already
been signed, but that report turned out to be a garbled version of a
more accurate Italian newspaper article.
The price MirCorp would charge to Irali-Mir to send Vibert was
not released, but based on past reports of possible Mir tourists, the
price would likely be in the range of a few tens of millions of
dollars.
Astronomers Get a New View of Mercury
Astronomers using a sophisticated imaging technique have
obtained the first images of a region of Mercury never before seen in
detail.
In a paper published in the May issue of the Astronomical
Journal, a team of Boston University (BU) astronomers released images
of a portion of a hemisphere of Mercury that spacecraft missions and
other groundbased observations have never seen.
High-resolution images of Mercury have evaded astronomers in
the past because of both the planet's small size -- only Pluto is
smaller -- and its proximity to the Sun, which limits observing
possibilities and keeps some telescopes, like the Hubble Space
Telescope, from observing Mercury at all as a safety measure.
To get around these problems, the Boston University
astronomers took images of the planet every 1/60th of a second
continuously for 90 minutes just after sunrise on August 29, 1998.
The images were taken by a digital CCD camera attached to a 1.52-meter
(60-inch) telescope at Mt. Wilson Observatory in California.
That observing effort resulted in 340,000 images of varying
quality. "The trick to getting a clear image," said BU astronomer
Michael Mendillo, "was then to find the best ones, say 30 to 60, that
could be added together by computer to create a time exposure of
sufficient duration (.5 to 1 second) in order to capture detail on
Mercury's surface."
The BU team used sophisticated computer algorithms to select
those handful of best images and combined them into a single image
that shows details on the planet's surface. "By combining these
images," said research associate Jody Wilson, "a unique photograph
with details and clarity resulted."
The images created by the BU astronomers show a crescent of
the planet. A number of bright and dark spots appear in the image,
apparently due to craters, mountains, or other surface features, but
the fairly low resolution of the data prevents astronomers from making
more than educated guesses about their true nature.
Despite the limited resolution of the images, though, they are
proving useful to astronomers, as they provide the first look at a
portion of Mercury that had remained "hidden" until now. To date only
one spacecraft, Mariner 10, has visited Mercury, but during its three
flybys of the planet in 1974 and 1975 it took images of only one
hemisphere.
Since then astronomers have been trying to fill in this gap
with radar observations of the planet. Interestingly, the BU team
found that a bright spot in radar observations of the planet did not
match up with any bright or dark regions in their image. Other
astronomers had previously suggested the region, in the far northern
regions of the planet, might be a volcano based on the radar
observations, but the new images do nothing to support this
conclusion.
A pair of upcoming missions should fill the gap in our
understanding of the planet. The MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment,
GEochemistry and Ranging (MESSENGER) mission is a NASA Discovery-class
mission to go into orbit around Mercury and collect images and other
data of all regions of the planet. That spacecraft is scheduled for
launch in 2004, entering orbit around Mercury five years later.
The European Space Agency is planning a similar mission to
Mercury, Bepi Colombo, that would feature both an orbiter and a
lander. No launch date for that mission has been announced, but it
would likely take place later in the decade than MESSENGER.
Meanwhile, the BU astronomers plan to continue their ground-
based observations, pushing them to not only resolve the moon's
surface but its very tenuous atmosphere of sodium and other atoms.
"We hope to try our first sodium detection experiments this fall,"
Jeffrey Baumgardner, lead author of the Astronomical Journal paper,
said. "But that will first involve building a more sensitive detector
system."
Galileo Completes Ganymede Flyby
NASA's Galileo spacecraft made a successful flyby Saturday of
Ganymede, the solar system's largest moon, the project announced
Monday, May 22.
Galileo flew to within 809 km (503 mi.) of the surface of
Ganymede, one of Jupiter's four large Galilean satellites, shortly
after 6 am EDT (1000 UT) Saturday, May 20. No significant problems
with the aging spacecraft were reported during the flyby.
"It's great that things went so smoothly," said Jim Erickson,
Galileo project manager. "The team was ready for any problems, but
they got to relax on this one. We're really looking forward to the new
pictures and learning more about this largest of all moons."
As with other recent flybys, spacecraft controllers kept an
eye on programs caused by the intense radiation environment in the
vicinity of the planet. Although the radiation did trigger two resets
of Galileo's main computer, software on the spacecraft correctly
identified these resets as caused by radiation and not other problems
with the spacecraft, and allowed the flyby to continue without
triggering a safe mode that would have disrupted scientific
observations.
"It appears that this workhorse spacecraft has done it again,"
said Erickson, who added that Galileo has now been exposed to three
times the radiation it was designed to survive, with no permanent ill
effects.
While observations of Ganymede, as well as Jupiter and Io,
were made during this flyby, a key reason for the flyby was to alter
the spacecraft's orbit for observations late this year. Galileo will
conduct joint observations of the Jovian system with the Cassini
spacecraft, which will fly by Jupiter in late December en route to
Saturn.
This flyby, as well as Io flyby in February, are part of the
Galileo Millennium Mission, an extension to Galileo's mission which
started after the Galileo Europa Mission, a two-year extension to
Galileo's original two-year primary mission, concluded. In addition
to the joint observations with Cassini, the Galileo Millennium Mission
also features another Ganymede flyby on December 28.
Legislation Could Ease Satellite Export Woes
A bill introduced into the House of Representatives earlier
this month would make it easier for U.S. companies to export
satellites for launch on foreign boosters.
H.R.4417, the Satellite Exports With Security Act of 2000,
would overturn legislation that went into force last year that
transferred export control of satellites and related items from the
Commerce Department to the State Department.
That transfer of authority, enacted by Congress after
allegations that satellite manufacturer Loral allowed sensitive
satellite technologies fall into Chinese hands, has been the bane of
the commercial satellite industry in the United States since it went
into effect in March of 1999.
The stricter rules, along with a lack of export application
inspectors in the State Department, contributed to delays that have
hindered American companies' ability to complete for contracts with
foreign companies, particularly for satellites to be launched outside
of the United States. The regulations have also hindered the flow of
information between the U.S. and other nations in areas ranging from
space insurance to scientific work.
The proposed legislation would transfer control of satellite
exports back to the Commerce Department, which the bill's supports
believe would be better able to process export license applications in
a timely manner.
With an eye towards national security, in particular China,
the bill would give the Defense Department 20 days to respond to any
approval of a satellite export license to China. If the Defense
Department disagreed with the Commerce Department's decision, the
matter would be referred to the President.
The bill was introduced in the House May 10 by Rep. Sam
Gejdenson (D-CT), with several Republican and Democrat cosponsors.
The bill has been referred to the House armed services and
international relations committees for consideration, but those bodies
have not yet taken action on the bill.
Some are skeptical that the legislation stands much of a
chance of passing this year, given both the relatively low importance
of the space industry within Congress as well as a sensitivity towards
politically-charged issues like China in an election year.
Even if the bill does not pass, a spokesperson for the
Aerospace Industries Association told the industry publication Space
News this month, H.R.4417 should "keep the debate going" on this
issue, making it more likely that a similar bill would pass next year
under a new President and Congress.
NASA Receives X-37 Prototype
NASA took delivery last week of a prototype of the X-37, an
orbital vehicle that will test reusable launch vehicle technologies.
The prototype, designated X-40A, was shipped by Boeing to
NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base,
California. There the vehicle will undergo a series of tests on the
ground and in the air, including a drop test from a helicopter.
The X-40A was originally built by Boeing several years ago for
the Air Force, who planned to use it as a prototype for a proposed
Space Maneuver Vehicle (SMV). The X-40A completed one drop test at
Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, in August 1998.
That project has now been folded into the X-37, an effort by
NASA and Boeing, with some Air Force funding, to develop a vehicle to
test reusable launch vehicle technologies both in the air and in
space. The X-40A, similar in design to the X-37 but about 15 percent
smaller, is the first step of the X-37 program.
"Delivery of the X-40A is an important step toward getting us
ready for our first unpowered X-37 test flight in 2001, then orbital
flights," said Susan Turner, X-37 project manager at the Marshall
Space Flight Center. "The X-40A tests at Dryden will ensure that the
X-37 mission is safe and successful."
Since its origin as an SMV prototype, the X-40A has been
upgraded. "In order to support the test goals of X-37, the X-40A has
received a number of modifications including improved instrumentation
and telemetry, a new integrated INS/GPS payload, upgraded power
systems, and additional redundancy for range safety," said Dick
Cervisi, Boeing X-37 program manager.
After completion of the X-40A tests at Dryden, the project
will focus on the X-37 itself, starting with drop tests from a B-52 at
Dryden next year. NASA then plans to fly the X-37 on two shuttle
missions in 2002 and 2003. Those flights will deploy the X-37 in
orbit, where it will remain for up to three weeks before reentering
and gliding to a runway landing.
NASA and Boeing plan to test over 40 advanced technologies
with the X-37, ranging from airframe designs to its AR-2/3 engine,
which uses JP-10 jet fuel and hydrogen peroxide as propellants. A
major focus will be on new thermal protection systems that are more
robust and less expensive than current systems.
The X-37 is part of NASA's Future-X program to develop and
test new technologies for future launch systems. The X-37 is one of
two major projects within the program, the other being the X-34
suborbital vehicle currently under development.
SpaceViews Event Horizon
May 30 First Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory deorbiting
maneuver, at 9:54 pm EDT (0154 UT May 31).
May 31 Second Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory deorbiting
maneuver, at 10:41 pm EDT (0241 UT June 1).
June 4 Third Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory deorbiting
maneuver, at 1:37 am EDT (0537 UT).
June 4 Fourth and final Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory
deorbiting maneuver, at 3:05 am EDT (0705 UT).
June 4 Proton launch of the Gorizont 45 communications
satellite from Baikonur, Kazakhstan
June 6 Pegasus XL launch of the TSX-5 military experimental
satellite off the coast from Vandenberg Air Force
Base, California
June 10 Silicon Valley Space Enterprise Symposium,
San Jose, CA
June 15 Delta 2 launch of the GPS 2R-5 satellite from Cape
Canaveral, Florida at 7:23 am EDT (1123 UT)
June 26 "Going Public 2000" space tourism symposium,
Washington DC
Other News
A Dimming Black Hole: Despite still being in its commissioning phase,
a new European x-ray telescope has made an important discovery: a
black hole that has suddenly, inexplicably dimmed. The XMM-Newton
spacecraft was observing the object LMC X-3 because its brightness in
x-ray wavelengths of light was well-known and constant in the 30 years
it has been observed, making it an ideal calibration source for the
instruments on the observatory, launched last December. However, X-
3's brightness started falling on April 19, plunging by a factor of
100, a dimming confirmed by NASA's Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer
spacecraft. Why LMC X-3 suddenly dimmed remains a mystery to
astronomers. While this object is studied, scientists continue to
calibrate the instruments on the spacecraft, with normal science
operations set to begin in June.
Making the Milky Way Disappear: For most, the Milky Way is a
picturesque band of gas and dust visible over large portions of the
night sky. However, to astronomers the Milky Way has been an annoying
object that has obstructed their view of more distant objects.
However, the HI Parkes All-Sky Survey (HIPASS) used the multi-beam
Parkes radio observatory in Australia to map the southern sky,
including regions of the Milky Way, at wavelengths of light not
blocked by the bulk of our galaxy. The data, released last week,
gives astronomers their first look at what the galaxy had previously
hidden from view. "Pretty as it is, the Milky Way is a nuisance,"
explained Lister Staveley-Smith, project scientist at the Australia
Telescope National Facility, which operates Parkes. "Like a band of
grime on a window, it blocks our view of about 15% of the sky."
Besides revealing what the Milky Way had obscured, astronomers believe
that the data will provide additional insights on the nature of the
universe, including the amount and distribution of normal "baryonic"
matter.
More Japanese Space Woes: The Japanese space program, reeling from a
string of recent failures and the resignation of the head of the space
agency NASDA, has reportedly suffered another setback. Sources
reported late last week the American satellite firm Hughes has
canceled contracts worth over $800 million to launch satellites on
that country's H-2 booster. However, a Japanese official told Reuters
that another major customer, the European Space Agency, plans to stick
with the H-2A -- an upgraded version of the H-2 that has yet to fly --
for the launch of the ARTEMIS experimental communications and
technology satellite next February.
Mars Images and Rocks: NASA released 20,000 new images of Mars last
week taken by the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft. The publicly-
available images span one Martian year (687 days) between September
1997 and August 1999. "These are exciting times for Mars scientists
and this release of images is in my opinion something unprecedented in
the Mars science business," said Ken Edgett, a staff scientist at
Malin Space Science Systems. The images can be browsed on the Web at
http://www.msss.com/moc_gallery/ ... Those who prefer actual Mars
rocks over images are also in luck. A one-kilogram (2.2-lb.)
meteorite found in Oman has turned out to be of Martian origin, the
fifteenth such Martian meteorite discovered. Ron Baalke, a Mars
meteorite collector and curator of a Web site devoted to the field,
said about 800 grams (28 oz.) will go on the market for sale in the
near future.
Briefly: A Congressionally-mandated commission has started work to
see if the United States needs a separate Space Force, Florida Today
reported Friday. The commission, led by former secretary of defense
Donald Rumsfeld, will spend six months studying whether a 30,000-
strong separate military branch should be created from the space units
in the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The odds of such a force being
created, though, appear slim, particularly since the Air Force -- who
would lose the most from the creation of a Space Force -- has been
positioning itself as an "Aerospace Force"... LunaCorp, a company that
has been promoting a commercial moon mission for several years, has
reportedly obtained an investment from a "well-known" firm, SPACE.com
reported last week. An official announcement is not expected until
June 15, but company president David Gump said the investment was
"significant" and from a "Fortune 500 company that抯 a real household
name." The funding will support the company's plans to send a rover
to the lunar poles in 2003 to look for direct evidence of water ice.
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the National Space Society. The meeting will be held
Thursday, June 1 at 7:30 pm on the 8th floor of 545 Main
Street, Cambridge. For more information check
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*** Articles ***
Searching for Other Worlds
by Bruce Moomaw
[Editor's Note: this is the last in a series of five articles on the
state of the new field of astrobiology, based on an astrobiology
science conference held in April. For previous articles in this
series, visit our new astrobiology section at
http://www.spaceviews.com/features/astrobiology/ .]
In their recent book Rare Earth, Peter Ward and Donald
Brownlee argue that although simple, durable one-celled life may be
very common in the Universe, at most one nearby star out of several
hundred may have any planet capable of evolving metazoan life, let
alone intelligence. Given the vast number of stars within a few
thousand light-years of us, though, it still seems very possible that
our technology may allow us to identify some such stars.
Even if no such worlds exist, we badly need to know much more
about all the different types of planets around other stars in order
to better understand just what the odds for complex life on them
really are. Not surprisingly, there was considerable discussion of
current and future techniques to detect extrasolar planets at the
first Astrobiology Science Conference last month at NASA's Ames
Research Center.
Searching for Extrasolar Planets Today
Until this year, the only successful technique available to us
was Doppler radial-velocity measurements. Any planet orbiting a star
naturally tends to drag the star around with it in a slight wobble.
This wobble is very slight given the tiny mass of all planets relative
to their stars -- Jupiter has only 1/1000 the mass of the Sun -- which
means current Earth-based telescopes can't see the wobble directly.
An alternative means exists, though, to detect this wobble.
The very sensitive spectrometers that we now have can detect the
resulting very slight Doppler shifts in the frequency of the star's
light spectrum as the star shifts towards and away from the Earth.
For five years now this method has been sensitive enough to detect
Jupiter-mass planets closely orbiting fairly bright stars, allowing
astronomers to determine these planets' orbits and estimate their
masses.
This technique requires very sensitive Doppler measurements,
capable of detecting stellar velocity changes of only a few dozen
meters per second. The smaller the planet, the smaller the Doppler
shift -- and so it was only in March that we were able to confirm the
existence of the first two Saturn-sized extrasolar planets. The
sensitivity of our Doppler measurements is increasing rapidly, though;
D.J. Erskine described a newly-developed instrument capable of sensing
a Doppler shift of only 1 meter/sec. The general feeling is that
within a year, we'll be able to confidently detect Uranus-sized
extrasolar planets if they are close to their suns. But detecting
planets as tiny as Earth (only 1/300 the mass of Jupiter) using this
technique is, of course, far harder.
Besides mass sensitivity, the radial velocity technique has
other limitations. A gas giant reasonably far from its star naturally
has a long orbital period (12 years in the case of Jupiter), so you
need both an observational period of decades to be able to detect the
resulting very slow rhythmic change in the star's velocity. The
planets discovered to date have orbited very close to their parent
stars; astronomers believe that at least five percent of Sun-like
stars have such "hot Jupiters."
Second, this technique can only set a lower limit on the
planet's mass -- that is, a measure of what its mass is if the
planet's orbital plane just happens to be perfectly lined up with
Earth's line of sight to the star, so that the planet is dragging the
star directly toward and away from our Sun. But, naturally, in
reality such planets must have orbital planes tilted at all sorts of
angles relative to our line of sight. Even a huge planet cannot be
detected at all by the Doppler technique if its orbital plane is at
right angles to our line of sight. So in reality, it's a safe bet
that our estimates of some of these planets' masses must be seriously
underestimated.
New Search Techniques
New techniques hold promise to detect more -- and smaller --
extrasolar planets. Astrometry, where the wobble in a star induced by
a planet is directly observed, requires sensing position changes of as
little as a few billionths of a degree, and is thus impractical with
the Earth's blurring atmosphere. Astronomy satellites, with much
sharper eyes, may be better suited to utilize this technique. The
small satellite FAME, scheduled for launch in 2004, will spend five
years measuring the positions of millions of stars with an accuracy of
only 14 billionths of a degree -- enough to detect planets only twice
Jupiter's mass around several hundred stars within 75 light-years.
NASA hopes to launch the much bigger Space Interferometry
Mission (SIM) in 2006, which will survey several hundred nearby stars
with an accuracy 50 times better -- good enough to detect Earth from a
distance of 9 light-years! The greater sensitivity of these
satellites will also enable us to detect giant planets much farther
from their parent stars, allowing us to gauge just how unusual our own
Solar System really is. Additionally, astrometry -- unlike Doppler
velocity measurements -- will allow us to determine the "flatness" of
the star's looping path as seen by us, and so measure the tilt of the
planet's orbit toward us and thus its exact mass.
Another promising near-future technique is transit
observations, in which one simply measures the very slight decrease in
the star's apparent brightness as a planet repeatedly crosses in front
of it -- which about one-half percent of Earth-sized planets of other
stars should do for us. This technique was successfully used for the
first time last year to confirm an extrasolar planet (one of the hot
Jupiters) -- and it also allows determination of the planet's
diameter.
Laurence Doyle of the SETI Institute, in a conference poster,
reported the results of his long-term transit survey of the binary red
dwarf star pair CM Draconis, looking for a rocky terrestrial planet
within its habitable zone. (Since the stars are so dim, such a planet
would have a period of only a few weeks.) He could find no such
planet down to a diameter of 31,000 km: "We believe this is the first
survey of another stellar system for possible habitable planets to be
performed."
Like astrometry, though, transit observations can be done
better from space. The French satellite Corot, to be launched in
2004, will make very sensitive light-fluctuation measurements of 6,000
stars, enabling it to look for large transiting planets. But Corot is
a small satellite with different scientific goals, and is not really
designed for this.
Another mission along those lines is Kepler, proposed by
NASA's Ames Research Center. Kepler is small and cheap enough that it
has already been proposed for NASA's low-cost Discovery program; it
wasn't selected the first time around but the proposal was well-
received and will be resubmitted this year. Unlike Corot, FAME and
SIM, Kepler would focus entirely on planet-hunting, spending four
years observing a single field of 100,000 stars, checking all of the
simultaneously for transiting planets.
Kepler would be able to firmly detect 150-200 Earth-sized
planets in these stars' habitable zones, and over 400 larger
terrestrial-type planets, and thus it might single-handedly give us
our first really good estimate of how many alien planetary systems may
contain planets that might support complex life.
Extrasolar Planet Pictures
Finally, there's the obvious technique: trying to observe the
planet directly. This is stupendously difficult -- Jupiter would
appear only one-billionth as bright as our Sun in visible light to an
alien astronomer -- but it, too is now teetering on the brink of
feasibility, conference attendees reported.
Bruce Macintosh described some of the first Earth-based
attempts to directly observe planets during his conference talk.
Large groundbased telescopes with adaptive optics systems, which
correct for the distortions caused by the Earth's atmosphere, combined
with infrared detectors now make it possible to detect young gas
giants -- which are hotter and thus brighter at infrared wavelengths
-- at great distances from their parent stars.
Right now the Keck Telescope, using its adaptive optics in the
infrared, could spot a young Jupiter at 10 billion km from a nearby
star, and a young planet 5 times Jupiter's mass at 5 billion km
distance. To date Macintosh's search effort has turned up no such
planets, perhaps because large planets do not form at such great
distances.
Macintosh said that in the next few years, slightly bigger
telescopes and longer observation times should allow detection of
Jupiter-sized planets, at Jupiter's 800 million km from its Sun,
around the six nearest stars. The earth-based telescopes being
considered for the next two decades -- which will use computers to
combine the images from dozens of separate mirrors to produce the
equivalent of a single mirror with a diameter of 30-100 meters --
should be able to directly see Jupiters around dozens of nearby stars.
Once again, though, space-based telescopes can be far better
for this -- if we can afford them. In interferometry, the longer the
baseline separating two telescopes, the sharper the combined image
that they generate is. The SIM mission will use pairs of small
telescopes on a 10-meter boom. However, the Deep Space 3 mission,
scheduled for 2005, will test placing a pair of telescopes on separate
spacecraft and flying them in formation up to 500 meters apart. Such
a mission demands extremely high accuracy -- down to a few billionths
of a meter -- but recent techniques give us confidence that we can
make it practical, even between distant free-flying satellites.
If a success, this technique may be applied to a followup to
SIM, called the Terrestrial Planet Finder. It would
interferometrically combine the images from several 3 or 4- meter
telescopes (either mounted on a boom or flying in formation) in solar
orbit, to cancel out all but a few millionths of the light from a star
in a process called "interferometric nulling" first tested with
groundbased telescopes in 1998. TPF could not only detect terrestrial
worlds, it could measure the temperature, water and carbon dioxide on
all Earth-sized planets within 50 light-years of Earth, thus
determining their climate.
TPF would also try to detect traces of ozone in their air --
for ozone is made from free oxygen, which can only exist in the air of
an Earth-temperature planet if photosynthetic plants are churning it
out in large amounts. It would also look for methane, which could
probably exist in large traces in the air of an Earth-sized planet
only if bacteria were producing it -- thus allowing us to look for
life on those planets where photosynthesis hasn't yet evolved. It is
thus quite possible that we'll be able to solidly prove the existence
of life on a planet of another star before we can prove or disprove it
on Mars or Europa!
Astrobiology's Future
Given the wildly enthusiastic reception that the conference
got from the scientific community, a second conference -- probably in
2002 -- is a virtual certainty. National Astrobiology Institute
Director Baruch Blumberg announced in his opening speech that there
will soon be an editorial in the journal Science and a special issue
of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences on
astrobiology, and a post-doctoral fellowship program run by the
National Research Council. As he noted, astrobiology seems to have a
remarkable ability not just to attract the interest of the general
public, but that of scientists -- and to allow those in different
fields to combine their expertise in ways that aren't often seen in
today's scientific world.
========
This has been the May 29, 2000, issue of SpaceViews.
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