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发信人: bage (网事如疯·春心萌动), 信区: AerospaceScience
标 题: SpaceViews -- 2000 May 22(转载)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2000年12月23日17:51:50 星期六), 转信
【 以下文字转载自 bage 的信箱 】
【 原文由 hitsma@0451.com 所发表 】
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S P A C E V I E W S
Issue 2000.21
2000 May 22
http://www.spaceviews.com/2000/0522/
*** News ***
Shuttle Mission to ISS Gets Underway
First Four Atlas 3A Launch Attempts Scrubbed
Rokot Completes Successful Test Launch
ICO and Teledesic to Join Forces
Comet Discovery Raises Search Questions
Panel Releases Astronomy "Wish List" for Coming Decade
X-33 Aerospike Engine Completes Longest Test
Galileo Studies Io's Volcanic Laboratory
SpaceViews Event Horizon
Other News
*** Articles ***
Mercury's Competition: Vostok
*** News ***
Shuttle Mission to ISS Gets Underway
After months of delays, the space shuttle Atlantis lifted off
Friday on a mission to the International Space Station (ISS), which
the shuttle successfully docked with late Saturday.
Atlantis blasted off into clear pre-dawn skies at 6:11:10 am
EDT (1011:10 UT) Friday morning at the beginning of a five-minute
launch window. No problems were reported either during the countdown
or the successful launch -- an "uneventful climb to orbit" according
to a NASA spokesperson.
Friday was the fourth attempt to launch the shuttle on mission
STS-101. Three launch attempts last month were scrubbed, twice
because of high winds at the Kennedy Space Center and a third time
because of poor weather at three transatlantic abort landing (TAL)
landing sites.
In addition, Friday's launch attempt was pushed back from
Thursday when a previously-scheduled Atlas 3A launch was pushed back
to Wednesday. The Eastern Range, which includes Cape Canaveral Air
Force Station and Kennedy Space Center, requires 24 hours between
launches to reset radars and other systems.
After spending nearly two days in orbit catching up to ISS,
Atlantis successfully docked with the station at 12:31 am EDT (0431
UT) Sunday morning. NASA described the docking as "flawless", with
everything taking place according to plan.
The docking was a success despite a decision a day earlier to
shut down one of the two large orbital maneuvering system (OMS)
engines the shuttle uses to change its orbit. During a engine firing
Friday night flight controllers saw an indication that one of the two
propellant valves for the left OMS engine failed to close as planned.
Controllers decided not to use the engine again until the deorbit burn
while they investigate the cause of the problem, but noted that the
right OMS engine was sufficient for the maneuvers needed to rendezvous
with the station.
A day after docking, astronauts Jim Voss and Jeff Williams
performed a six-hour, 44-minute spacewalk outside the station,
successfully completing a series of repairs and other work to the
exterior of the Unity and Zarya modules.
Voss and Williams' first task was to inspect and reseat an
American cargo crane attached to the Unity module. The crane was
installed during a spacewalk on the previous ISS shuttle mission,
nearly one year ago, but was not locked properly into place. The
astronauts found no damage to the crane and set the crane into its
locked position.
The spacewalkers then worked on Strela, a Russian crane
designed to move cargo and spacewalkers around the Russian portion of
the station. Voss and Williams completed assembly of the crane on one
portion of Unity, then moved the crane to a spot on the pressurized
mating adapter between Unity and Zarya.
After installing the Strela crane, the crew replaced a faulty
antenna on the exterior of Unity used to transmit telemetry from the
module. They then installed a set of handrails to the exterior of the
station for use on later spacewalks and an electrical cable intended
for a future television camera.
Voss and Williams wrapped up the spacewalk by taking some
photographs of the exterior of Zarya before returning to the airlock
of the shuttle Atlantis. The spacewalk officially ended at 4:32 am
EDT (0832 UT) Monday, six hours and 44 minutes after it started.
With the spacewalk completed, the crew of STS-101 will now
turn their attention to the interior of the station. Astronauts plan
to open the hatch to the station at around 8 pm EDT Monday night (0000
UT Tuesday) and begin work there. Top on their list of priorities is
the replacement of four of the six batteries in the Zarya module that
have either failed or showed signs of failing.
Also during the next several days the crew will ferry supplies
from the shuttle to the station intended for the first permanent crew,
which is scheduled to fly to the station later this year after the
launch of the Zvezda service module.
In addition to being the first shuttle mission to ISS in
nearly a year, STS-101 is also the first flight of Atlantis since
September 1997, when it flew mission STS-86, the seventh shuttle-Mir
docking mission. After that mission the shuttle underwent an extensive
overhaul and upgrade period at a Boeing facility in Palmdale,
California.
STS-101 is commanded by veteran astronaut Jim Halsell, with
Scott Horowitz as pilot. The five mission specialists on STS-101 are
Mary Ellen Weber, Williams, Voss, Susan Helms, and Russian cosmonaut
Yuri Usachev. The latter three will also be the second long-duration
crew to stay on ISS, starting next year.
The shuttle is scheduled to undock from the station on Friday,
May 26, and land back at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, at 2:19 am
EDT (0619 UT) Monday, May 29.
First Four Atlas 3A Launch Attempts Scrubbed
The inaugural launch of Lockheed Martin's Atlas 3A booster has
been delayed until at least Tuesday after the first four launch
attempts last week were scrubbed for a variety of reasons.
Lockheed Martin and International Launch Services, the
international joint venture that markets the Atlas, had planned to
launch the Atlas 3A and its Eutelsat W4 satellite payload on Monday,
May 15. However, the initial launch attempt was postponed when a
downrange tracking radar in Bermuda failed.
A second launch attempt the next day was postponed because of
high, rapidly-changing upper-level winds. A third launch attempt on
Wednesday was delayed by a number of technical problems, including a
timing error that stopped the countdown just 29 seconds before liftoff
that ended that night's launch attempt.
After the shuttle lifted off Friday, a fourth launch attempt
was conducted Saturday. That launch attempt was pushed back to the
end of a two-hour, 19-minute launch window when dozens of fishing
boats, participating in a tournament earlier in the day, had to be
escorted from restricted waters downrange from the launch site. A
software glitch a little over two minutes before liftoff scrubbed this
attempt.
ILS had planned a fifth launch attempt Sunday afternoon, but
decided Sunday morning to push back the launch until at least Tuesday
after a problem was noticed with the booster when propellant was being
offloaded after the Saturday launch attempt.
The launch, when it does occur, will be historic for two
reasons. Not only is it the first launch of the new Atlas 3 family of
boosters, it's the first time an American booster has used a Russian
rocket engine: an RD-180 engine in the first stage of the booster.
The RD-180 replaces the MA-5A and four solid-propellant strap-on
boosters used in the Atlas 2AS, giving the Atlas 3A about 10 percent
additional payload capacity over the Atlas 2AS.
The RD-180 was designed and built by NPO Energomash in Russia,
and is marketed by RD AMROSS, a joint venture between Energomash and
Pratt & Whitney in the U.S. RD-180 engines will also be
manufactured in the U.S. in the future, primarily for Atlas launches
of military payloads.
The Atlas 3A's payload, the Eutelsat W4 satellite, will
primarily be used to provide direct television broadcasts to Russia
for the Russian media group Media-Most. A secondary beam from the
satellite will provide television and broadband Internet access for
sub-Saharan Africa.
The launch was previously scheduled for mid-April, but delayed
when engineers decided to inspect the satellite after concerns were
reported about defective seals in the propulsion system on it and
similar spacecraft. The spacecraft was inspected and cleared for
launch.
Lockheed Martin had hoped to launch the first Atlas 3A last
year, but was delayed by investigations into the Centaur upper stage.
The original payload for the first atlas 3 was to be the Telstar 7
spacecraft for Loral, but the company switched to the Ariane 4 last
summer, leaving the Atlas 3 without a payload until Eutelsat was
signed as a customer earlier this year.
Rokot Completes Successful Test Launch
A Russian booster completed a successful test launch Tuesday,
demonstrating its ability to serve the low-Earth orbit commercial
satellite market.
The Rokot lifted off from launch complex 133 at the Plesetsk
Cosmodrome in Russia at approximately 4:30 am EDT (0830 UT). It and
its Briz-KM (Breeze-KM) upper stage placed two test satellites, named
SIMSAT-1 and SIMSAT-2, into a 540-km (335-mi.) circular orbit at an
inclination of 86.4 degrees.
The Rokot, based on the SS-19 ICBM, is being marketed to
commercial customers by Eurockot, a joint venture between Russian
aerospace firm Khrunichev and German firm DaimlerChrysler Aerospace.
The goal of this Commercial Demonstration Flight (CDF) was to show
that the booster was ready for commercial operations.
"With this successful launch, Rokot and our facilities at
Plesetsk Cosmodrome, in which we invested approximately US$35 million,
attained their full operational capability," said Eurockot CEO Gunter
Stamerjohanns.
Eurockot had planned this demonstration launch for early this
year, but delayed it after a pad mishap in late December damaged the
booster. While early reports said the booster had been seriously
damaged, Eurockot said the damage was largely confined to the payload
fairing, which fell off the top of the booster during a series of
electrical tests.
Although Tuesday's launch was hailed as a success, it's not
known when Rokot will make its first commercial flight. Eurockot had
planned a commercial flight for early this year to place a pair of
Iridium satellites into orbit, but that launch was canceled as Iridium
filed for bankruptcy protection and eventually went out of business.
Eurockot does have launch contracts with two other low-Earth
orbit (LEO) satellite companies, DBSI and Leo One, but the current
weak market for LEO communications satellites may make it difficult
for Eurockot to find additional commercial customers for its booster.
"I hope that today's success will attract [the] attention of
our potential clients to this new promising system," said Alexander
Medvedev, first deputy general director of Khrunichev.
The Rokot booster had previously flown three times: two test
flights in December 1990 and 1991, and an amateur radio satellite
launch in December 1994. All three launches had been from silos at
Baikonur; Tuesday's launch was the first from an above-ground pad.
ICO and Teledesic to Join Forces
Satellite phone company ICO emerged from nine months of
bankruptcy protection Wednesday as it announced plans to merge with a
holding company that will also own Teledesic.
ICO Global Communications left Chapter 11 bankruptcy
protection on Wednesday, after receiving a $700 million investment led
by cellular phone magnate Craig McCaw. A federal judge approved a
reorganization plan for the company, now known as New ICO, earlier in
the month.
At the same time, the company said it would merge with ICO-
Teledesic Holdings, a holding company created from the assets in New
ICO and fellow satellite communications company Teledesic owned by
Eagle River Investments LLC, McCaw's investment company.
Under the plan New ICO would become a wholly-owned subsidiary
of ICO-Teledesic Holdings, along with Teledesic. The Teledesic board
of directors approved a similar plan to merge with the holding company
May 12, but that decision also requires regulatory and shareholder
approval.
"We're honored to be on the same team with New ICO's
distribution partners," said McCaw, who will serve as chairman of the
holding company. "This unrivaled global network of leading
telecommunications companies includes many of the strongest
distribution partners in all regions of the world."
ICO filed for bankruptcy protection in late August of last
year, just two weeks after Iridium, another satellite phone company.
However, unlike Iridium, which had launched its full constellation of
66 satellites and was in operation, ICO had yet to launch a single
satellite when it filed for protection from its creditors.
The double-whammy of both the ICO and Iridium failures sent
chills through the launch industry, particularly among those companies
developing new reusable launch vehicles targeted specifically at the
low-Earth orbit (LEO) communications market, which at one time
promised to launch thousands of satellites. Those expectations had
dropped dramatically in recent years, in part because of the Iridium
and ICO failures.
ICO did manage one satellite launch when ICO F-1 was launched
in March on a Sea Launch Zenit 3SL booster from the Pacific Ocean.
However, a failure in the second stage of the booster prevented the
satellite from reaching orbit, and it crashed into the Pacific.
McCaw's plans for both New ICO and Teledesic remain vague,
with no concrete technical details for either satellite system,
including the number and type of satellites. However, he said that
the systems will provide complementary services, with ICO providing
"third-generation", or 3G, wireless phone services and Teledesic
providing broadband access.
"The enhancements to the New ICO network have been made in its
ground infrastructure, which will make it possible to upgrade and
evolve the network over time and even to switch among different
technologies in real-time," said Russell Daggatt, acting CEO of New
ICO and ICO-Teledesic Holdings. "The New ICO and Teledesic teams are
already working together laying the groundwork for delivering quality
global voice and satellite 3G wireless services."
Teledesic once planned to launch up to 1,000 satellites into
low-Earth orbits to provide an "Internet-in-the-Sky" high-speed data
service. The number of satellites has fallen to a couple hundred and
may go down even further, particularly as ICO's system is expanded to
provide higher data rates than originally planned.
"Teledesic is looking to take advantage of the work being done
by New ICO and is examining how the respective business plans of the
two companies might support each other," Teledesic said in a
statement. "Along those lines, Teledesic is in the process of
evaluating its system to better align it with the ICO infrastructure
and to improve its cost and schedule targets."
New ICO plans start providing service in 2003, and Teledesic
is maintaining its target service date of 2004.
Comet Discovery Raises Search Questions
The recent discovery of a comet that passed through the inner
solar system nearly three years ago has raised questions in the
astronomical community about the efficiency of current asteroid and
comet search techniques.
In an article in the May 18 issue of the journal Nature, a
team of Finnish and French scientists reported the discovery of a
comet seen by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), a joint
ESA/NASA mission designed to study not comets but the Sun.
The comet was observed by the Solar Wind Anisotropy (SWAN)
instrument on SOHO, a device designed to detect "Lyman-alpha"
emissions of light from clouds of interstellar hydrogen gas around the
Sun. Since Lyman-alpha light is also emitted by clouds of gas around
comets, they also show up in SWAN images.
Scientists led by Teemu Makinen of the Finnish Meteorological
Institute scanned SWAN images from mid-1997 and found five separate
bright spots that could be comets. Four of the five were linked to
previously-discovered comets, including the famous bright comet Hale-
Bopp. The fifth, though, corresponded to no other observed comet, and
hence scientists believe it is a "new" comet not previously observed.
Because of the orbit of the comet -- which took it to within
1.2 astronomical units (180 million km, 112 million mi.) of the Earth
in mid-1997 -- astronomers believe it could have been observed by
professional or amateur astronomers using small telescopes or even
binoculars.
"Because the comet was almost constant in brightness over
several months, it should have been easily observable from the ground,"
Makinen and colleagues said in their Nature paper.
Other astronomers have pointed out that the comet was not
visible in the northern hemisphere, where the great majority of search
efforts take place, and that the comet itself was likely never
brighter than magnitude 11, making it a challenging object for
amateurs to detect using small instruments.
The fact that the comet, named 1997 K2, was not seen until
scientists went through the archival data from SWAN may be a cause for
concern about the efficiency of current efforts to detect potentially
hazardous near-Earth objects (NEOs), including both asteroids and
comets.
In a commentary accompanying the article, astronomer Michael
A'Hearn of the University of Maryland said that the failed detection
of the comet three years ago may be a sign that current search efforts
are skewed towards asteroids 1 km (0.62 mi.) or larger in diameter,
despite the fact there are likely many more smaller bodies that could
wreak major damage if they struck the Earth.
"For our peace of mind, it is important to know whether comets
represent 10 percent of the potential large impacts on Earth (as is
commonly thought) or a much larger fraction," A'Hearn wrote.
Some astronomers have said in recent months that the number of
large near-Earth asteroids is smaller than once thought, and that
existing search programs that have dramatically increased the
discovery rate of such objects in recent years may be sufficient to
catalog 90 percent of these objects within the next ten years.
However, Benny Peiser, moderator of CCNet, a mailing list used
by the near-Earth object search community, argues that those
astronomers are missing the point made by comet 1997 K2. "It could
soon be that NASA's flawed Spaceguard goal will be blamed for the
failure of NEO surveys to detect comets such as C/1997 K2 and others,"
he wrote.
This discovery, warns Peiser, is "a timely reminder that -- in
spite of all the hype, PR, [and] over-optimism -- we are still far
from getting a grip on the impact hazard."
Panel Releases Astronomy "Wish List" for Coming Decade
A National Academy of Sciences panel released a report Friday
recommending the development of a set of new observatories and other
initiatives for the next decade of astronomical research, including a
successor to the Hubble Space Telescope and a giant ground-based
observatory.
The report, "Astronomy and Astrophysics in the New
Millennium", compiled a list of astronomical research priorities for
the next decade and a $4.7-billion list of observatories and other
projects that are best suited to deal with those research priorities.
At the top of the list of projects recommended by the panel
was the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST), a proposed successor
to the Hubble Space Telescope. Current designs of the NGST, proposed
for launch in 2008, feature an 8-meter (315-inch) primary mirror, more
than three times the size of the mirror on Hubble. The NGST would be
optimized for observations in visible and infrared wavelengths of
light.
Also highly recommended by the NAS panel was the Giant
Segmented Mirror Telescope (GSMT), a proposal to build a 30-meter (98-
foot) ground-based telescope using an array of mirror segments. The
GSMT would be three times the size of the two 10-meter (33-foot) Keck
Observatory telescopes in Hawaii, currently the largest optical
telescopes in the world.
Additional space-based projects recommended by the panel
included Constellation-X Observatory, an orbiting fleet of four x-ray
telescopes that would serve as the follow-up to the Chandra X-ray
Observatory; Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF), a orbiting infrared
interferometer designed to look for evidence of Earth-sized extrasolar
planets; and the Single-Aperture Far Infrared (SAFIR) observatory, an
8-meter orbiting observatory that would work at longer wavelengths
than NGST.
The panel also gave its endorsement to upgrades to the Very
Large Array radio telescope in New Mexico and the construction of the
Large-aperture Synoptic Survey Telescope, a 6.5-meter (256-inch)
telescope that would scan the sky once a week to look for near-Earth
objects, supernovae, and other objects.
Several projects recommended by a similar panel a decade ago
and currently in development were endorsed again by this committee.
Those projects include the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF),
a space-based infrared telescope and the last of NASA's original four
"Great Observatories"; the Atacama Millimeter Wave Array, a large
international project to study the sky at millimeter wavelengths
planned for Chile; the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared
Astronomy (SOFIA), an airborne infrared observatory; and the Space
Interferometry Mission, a precursor to TPF.
Those projects, as well as a number of smaller ground- and
space-based projects, were selected by the panel since they would be
best able to meet what the panel believes are the key scientific
priorities for the field of astronomy in the coming decade.
Those priorities include determining the age and history of
the universe and the amount of matter and energy within it;
understanding what took place in the early history of the universe;
studying the formation and evolution of black holes; understanding how
planetary systems form and studying how the astronomical environment,
such as Sun-induced "space weather", affects the Earth.
Such ambitious projects do not come cheap. The panel
estimated the total cost of these projects to run $4.67 billion. Of
that, more than half -- $2.76 billion -- would be allocated to the
seven largest projects described above, including $1 billion for NGST
alone. The total is about 20 percent greater than the total for the
projects recommended for the last decade.
Not all the money would be sunk into new telescopes. The
panel's highest recommendation for "small" projects, with a price tag
of $60 million, is a proposal for a National Virtual Observatory that
would make the large sets of data created by the various observing
projects available to other scientists and the general public over the
Internet. The panel also recommended additional support for
educational outreach activities to students and the public.
Despite the seemingly-high price of such projects, the panel
noted that the investment is needed if the United States is to remain
competitive in the international arena, particularly in the field of
ground-based astronomy. "Whereas the United States has been a leader
in astronomical research during much of the twentieth century," the
panel noted in its report, "other countries have advanced rapidly, so
that in some cases their facilities are competitive with -- and for
some purposes, even superior to -- U.S. facilities."
To get the most of the proposed federal investment into new
facilities, the panel recommended improved coordination between NASA,
the National Science Foundation, and the Department of Energy,
agencies who all fund astronomy and astrophysics research. The panel
also encouraged the trend for international collaborations as a way to
spread the cost of expensive projects among a number of partner
nations.
X-33 Aerospike Engine Completes Longest Test
An aerospike engine intended for NASA's X-33 experimental
vehicle completed its longest test firing to date earlier this month,
despite having to shut down early.
The XRS-2200 engine fired for four minutes and 50 seconds on
Friday, May 12, 27 seconds longer than the previous record. The
engine test took place at NASA's Stennis Space Center in Mississippi.
The test was intended to go for an additional 35 seconds but
was shut down early when a flexible seal designed to prevent exhaust
from circulating back into the engine cavity began to erode. No other
damage was found in the engine after the test.
X-33 engineers don't believe that this seal problem is
critical. The seal had been in place in the engine for tests totaling
nearly 13 minutes, all of them in sea-level conditions -- a "test-
peculiar" condition, officials said, that would not be encountered if
the engine was used on an actual flight.
"Despite the abbreviated test, almost all of our test
objectives have been met," said Mike McKeon, XRS-2200 program manager
at Rocketdyne, the Boeing subsidiary that built the engine.
The May 12 test was the last in a series of 14 planned for the
engine. McKeon said officials are reviewing the status of the test
program to determine if an additional single-engine test is needed, of
if the program can go on to conduct a series of tests using two XRS-
2200 engines in tandem.
The XRS-2200 engine, first tested at full power in December,
is the first in a series of four such engines to be built for the X-33
program. After tests of this engine are complete, two separate engines
will be installed on the X-33 for eventual flight tests.
Unlike conventional engines, an aerospike engine does not have
a bell-shaped nozzle for the exhaust to push against. Instead, a
nozzle ramp is used, which allows for the optimal expansion of the
exhaust plume, making the engine more efficient. Conventional nozzles
don't permit such expansion, reducing the efficiency of those engines,
particularly at high altitudes.
This engine is one of the core new technologies to be tested
by the X-33, an experimental suborbital vehicle developed by NASA and
Lockheed Martin to test new reusable launch vehicle (RLV)
technologies. The X-33 was originally designed as a half-scale
version of VentureStar, a large RLV proposed by Lockheed Martin, but
since the X-33's selection by NASA nearly four years ago the designs
of the two vehicles have diverged to some degree.
When the X-33 might fly with those aerospike engines is
unknown. NASA originally planned to fly the X-33 starting in March
1999, but that date has been pushed back by problems with the
aerospike engines and a liquid hydrogen fuel tank made of lightweight
experimental composite materials.
Problems with the tanks, including damage sustained by one
during a test last November, make it likely the tanks will be replaced
with heavier aluminum tanks. Such a decision could push back the
first flight of the X-33 into 2002.
NASA officials told Congress a report on the November tank
incident and plans for the future would be released within "30 days"
of the April 11 hearing, but no report has been publicly released to
date.
Galileo Studies Io's Volcanic Laboratory
Data from three close flybys of Io by the Galileo spacecraft
have given planetary scientists new insights into the nature of this
volcanic inner moon of Jupiter.
Preliminary results from the three flybys, which took place
last October 11, November 26, and February 22, were published Friday
as a series of papers in the current issue of the journal Science.
The observations were the first up-close observations of the
moon made since Galileo arrived at Jupiter in December 1995. Galileo
had avoided close flybys of the moon earlier in the mission because of
the intense radiation environment in the vicinity generated by
Jupiter's powerful magnetic fields.
One of the key discoveries from the flybys was actually made
with the help of the Hubble Space Telescope. As Galileo performed its
first flyby of Io last October, Hubble observed the moon with its
ultraviolet spectrograph and found a 350-km (220-mi.) high cloud of
gaseous sulfur ejected by Pele, one of the largest volcanoes on Io.
The sulfur cloud contains an unusual form of sulfur molecules
where sulfur atoms are joined together in pairs, rather than in groups
of eight as is the case with ordinary forms of sulfur. This unusual
form of sulfur is only stable at the high temperatures of Io's
volcanoes.
As the gas falls back to the surface of Io, it cools and
condenses, combining into another form where the molecules are
composed of three to four sulfur atoms. Such forms of sulfur appear
bright red, which explains the red colors seen on the surface of the
moon, particularly a bright red ring around Pele.
"These Hubble findings should help scientists understand the
chemistry of Io's interior," said Lowell Observatory's John Spencer,
lead author of two of the Science papers.
Images of the surface of Io turned up mountains as high as 16
km (10 mi.) above the surface. However, these mountains are not
volcanoes, as one might believe, but appear instead to be giant
uplifted blocks of the moon's crust. Another region of Io showed
evidence of a "pull-apart" basin cased by two mountain blocks moving
away from one another.
On Earth such mountains and basis are caused by plate
tectonics, as sections of the crust move against one another. That
doesn't appear to be the case on Io, however. "We consider it more
likely that lateral movements may be driven by deep 'mantle plumes' of
rising hot rock masses within Io," said Alfred McEwen of the
University of Arizona.
Despite this difference, McEwen believes that scientists can
learn something about the Earth by studying Io, the most active
volcanic body in the solar system. "Io is like a laboratory for
large-scale volcanic experiments," he said. "We don't have controlled
laboratories big enough to study these processes."
Io, he believes, is "a place we can watch the changes and
really understand how this activity might happen at this scale. With
that insight, we can go back and reconsider what happened in Earth's
past."
SpaceViews Event Horizon
May 23 Atlas 3A inaugural launch of the Eutelsat W4
communications satellite from Cape Canaveral, Florida
at 5:38 pm EDT (2138 UT)
May 24-26 5th Annual ISU International Symposium: "The Space
Transportation Market: Evolution or Revolution?",
Strasbourg, France
May 25-29 International Space Development Conference, Tucson, AZ
May 29 Landing of the shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space
Center, Florida, at 2:10 am EDT (0610 UT).
June 6 Pegasus XL launch of the TSX-5 military experimental
satellite off the coast from Vandenberg Air Force Base,
California
June 10 Silicon Valley Space Enterprise Symposium,
San Jose, CA
June 26 "Going Public 2000" space tourism symposium,
Washington DC
Other News
SETI@home Milestone: SETI@home, the distributed computing project
that is analyzing radio telescope data for evidence of
extraterrestrial signals, marked both its first anniversary and two
millionth participant last week. The free software, available for a
variety of operating systems including Windows, MacOS, and Unix, is
designed to take advantage of computer time that would otherwise be
"wasted" when the computer was idle by analyzing data from SERENDIP, a
search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) project run out of
Berkeley that uses data collected by the Arecibo radio telescope in
Puerto Rico. While project officials said they would have been
satisfied with just 100,000 users, they now have over 2 million with
more joining at the rate of 2,000-3,000 a day. Version 3.0 of the
software, due out this summer, will perform additional analysis of the
SETI data.
Galileo Ganymede Flyby: The Galileo spacecraft performed a low-
profile flyby of Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system, May
20. Galileo passed within 811 km (502 mi.) of Ganymede at around 6:10
am EDT (1010 UT) Saturday. While the spacecraft did collect some
science data during the flyby, the main purpose was to put Galileo
into an orbit that will permit joint observations of Jupiter with the
Cassini spacecraft, which will fly by Jupiter in late December en
route to Saturn.
Deep Space One Fix: JPL engineers are making one last attempt to
revive the Deep Space One spacecraft, SPACE.com reported last week.
New software is being transmitted to the spacecraft to allow a camera
onboard the spacecraft to become a star tracker, taking the place of a
star tracker that failed late last year. Since the star tracker
failure the spacecraft has been in a safe mode, unable to orient
itself properly without the attitude data provided by the tracker.
The problem, which took place after the mission's primary mission
ended, has scratched plans for a March 2001 flyby of the comet Wilson-
Harrington, but if the new software works, a September 2001 flyby of
comet Borrelly may be salvaged.
Resignations Present and Future: The head of the Japanese space
agency NASDA announced his resignation Thursday after submitting a
report on the November failure of an H-2 rocket. Isao Uchida believed
"now was the time to quit" now that the report was completed, a NASDA
spokesman told Reuters... JPL director Ed Stone will step down next
year, officials confirmed Friday. Stone, in charge of JPL since 1991,
will leave the top job at the lab because he will turn 65 next
January, the customary retirement age for lab directors. A lab
spokesman told the Los Angeles Times the resignation plans had nothing
to do with the failures of the two recent Mars missions, both run by
JPL. Stone will keep his position as a professor of physics at
Caltech, the university that operates JPL for NASA.
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the National Space Society. The meeting will be held
Thursday, June 1 at 7:30 pm on the 8th floor of 545 Main
Street, Cambridge. For more information check
http://www.spaceviews.com/boston/
*** Articles ***
Mercury's Competition: Vostok
by Andrew J. LePage
All through 1959 and into 1960, America's very public Mercury
manned space program was making slow but steady progress (see "Giving
Mercury Wings" in the September 1, 1999 issue of SpaceViews). While
it was quite clear that the Soviet Union also planned to send men into
space, it was difficult to sort the facts from the stream of
propaganda. That began to change on May 15, 1960 with the launch of
Korabl Sputnik 1 (Spaceship Satellite 1) also referred to as "Sputnik
4" in the West.
Carrying a dummy cosmonaut in a 312 by 369 kilometer (194 by
229 mile) orbit inclined 65 degrees to the equator, Korabl Sputnik 1
was the long awaited inaugural flight of Mercury's competition.
Although the actual configuration of the spacecraft would remain a
state secret for five more years, its weight was announced to be a
record 4540 kilograms (9997 pounds). Weighing over three times more
than Mercury, the United States would not launch a more massive manned
spacecraft until the first Apollo in 1966.
Working Out the Design
When the Council of Chief Designers approved Sergei Korolev's
plan to launch a manned orbital spacecraft in November of 1958, its
basic design had already been worked out (see "The Start of the Manned
Space Race" in the November 1998 issue of SpaceViews). The design
team at Department No. 9 at Korolev's OKB-1 (Experimental Design
Bureau No. 1) had already settled on a two-module spacecraft composed
of a service module and a spherical descent module.
The descent module was a sphere 2.3 meters (7.5 feet) in
diameter weighing about 2400 kilograms (5300 pounds). It was covered
with an ablative heat shield and contained all the equipment needed
for returning from orbit. It was designed to carry a single space
suit-clad cosmonaut in a semi reclined ejection seat which served a
dual purpose: During the early phases of ascent, this seat could
safely eject the cosmonaut away from the craft in case of a problem.
Because of weight restrictions, the capsule could not carry a large
enough parachute to guarantee a soft enough landing for the pilot at
the end of a normal mission. Instead a forced landing procedure was
developed where, after reentry was done, the cosmonaut ejected from
the descent module at an altitude of 7 kilometers (23,000 feet). He
then used his own parachute to make a soft landing separate from the
more quickly falling descent module.
During the flight, the cabin interior maintained an oxygen-
nitrogen atmosphere at a pressure of one bar (15 psi) like on the
ground. Since the effects of weightlessness were unknown, the
spacecraft was completely automated with the "pilot" only taking
control using rudimentary instruments in an emergency. One of the
portholes was equipped with a Vzor optical sight built by TsKB-558
(Central Design Bureau No. 558) that allowed the cosmonaut to visually
check the spacecraft's attitude. While small, the cabin was roomy
enough for the cosmonaut to float out of his seat.
The service module carried all the equipment not needed for
the return to Earth. It was a double cone shape about 2.4 meters (7.9
feet) in diameter and about as tall with a mass of 2300 kilograms (5,
100 pounds). It was connected to the descent module by straps and an
umbilical arm designed to burn away in case they failed to separate
before reentry. This module carried various consumables for life
support, the attitude control system, batteries, telemetry systems and
a liquid propellant TDU-1 retrorocket at its base. Producing 16
kilonewtons (3600 pounds) of thrust for 45 seconds, the TDU-1 was
built by OKB-2 under Alexei M. Isayev. Spacecraft attitude was
controlled automatically by gas jets using inputs from solar and
infrared sensors. This system had to orient the spacecraft precisely
when the TDU-1 fired in order to make a survivable ballistic reentry.
As a backup, the cosmonaut could control the spacecraft's orientation
and fire the TDU-1 manually. The descent module had no active
attitude control and used aerodynamic forces in conjunction with an
offset center of gravity to maintain orientation during reentry.
Since mass restriction did not allow sufficient redundancy in
the TDU-1 retrorocket, the spacecraft employed an interesting backup
system to return to Earth: Atmospheric drag. The spacecraft would be
placed into a orbit that would naturally decay in ten days or less.
The Soviet spacecraft was designed from the start with a ten day
endurance so that if the TDU-1 failed, the cosmonaut still had a
chance to return to Earth alive. While initial plans called for the
first manned mission to last a day, this ten-day capability would
allow the Soviets to attempt missions an order of magnitude longer
than those planned for the much smaller Mercury capsule.
Moving Towards the First Launch
The spacecraft would be launched into orbit under an
aerodynamic shroud using an improved, man-rated version of the 8K72
Moon rocket called the 8K72K. Its R-7-based booster would incorporate
various engine and systems improvements developed for the newer R-7A
ICBM. The Blok E upper stage would also include many upgrades
including the replacement of its RO-5 engine with the more reliable
and powerful RO-7 built by OKB-154 under Semyin Kosberg. Although
work on the 8K72K started in January 1959 and progressed well into
1960, it was decided to use the 8K72 to launch the first unmanned
prototypes.
Even as work progressed on the Soviet manned spacecraft, a
major debate continued with military interests. In an effort to
broaden the appeal for the manned space program, Korolev's engineers
also designed a photographic reconnaissance variant of the spacecraft.
This unified design, called Vostok, received an official blessing in
the form of a government decree on May 22, 1959. But the military
wanted priority given to the development of the more useful
reconnaissance satellite rather than pouring limited resources into
the "stunt" of sending a man into orbit. But Korolev and, more
importantly, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev wanted a manned
spacecraft to be given priority. Still Korolev argued that much of
the development of the two Vostok variants could take place in
parallel.
As the debate raged, work on Vostok continued all through
1959. In March the basic hull drawings were completed. By May design
details were available and work started on the fabrication of actual
systems. By the end of 1959 a pair of Vostok "electrical analogs",
designated 1KP, were being tested in the shops. Ultimately a plan was
adopted that allowed for the development of both Vostok variants to
continue but with manned flights given priority for political and
propaganda purposes. On December 10, 1959 a decree was issued to
proceed.
By March of 1960, 20 cosmonaut candidates had started
training. Unlike the Mercury 7, their identities remained a secret in
some cases for years. Finally in April 1960 a draft project outline,
which Korloev had been following for months anyway, was officially
accepted. It called for the development of three Vostok variants.
Vostok-1 or 1K would be a prototype vehicle meant to test the basic
spacecraft design and systems. Next was the Vostok-2 or 2K
reconnaissance variant that was later known as Zenit-2. Finally there
was the Vostok-3 or 3K which would actually carry a cosmonaut into
orbit.
By the spring of 1960 the first 1KP was ready for launch. The
1K incorporated most of the elements of the manned 3K design except
the 1K had a mast on top of the descent module carrying a small solar
array. Shaped like a pair of half-disks a meter (3.3 feet) across,
they carried there own orientation system and would evaluate the use
of solar panels for supplying power on future spacecraft. The 1KP
prototype contained all the basic systems of the 1K except for life
support and a heat shield. This flight would simply evaluate the
performance of the basic Vostok design up to and including the firing
of the retrorocket. With no heat shield, an actual recovery would not
be attempted. The lack of a heat shield also meant that the
spacecraft could not accidentally land outside of the Soviet Union in
case control was lost.
The first Vostok prototype, called Korabl Sputnik 1, was
launched into orbit using an 8K72 on May 15, 1960. Except for a
problem with the attitude control system that developed a day into the
flight and excessively noisy communication frequencies for the
cosmonaut, reportedly all went well. Finally on May 19 after 64
orbits, Korabl Sputnik 1 was commanded to orient itself for retrofire
and the end of its mission. While the TDU-1 worked, the fault in the
attitude control system caused the engine to fire in the wrong
direction. Instead of heading for a destructive reentry, the
spacecraft was sent into a higher 307 by 690 kilometer (191 by 429
mile) orbit.
While the Western press took this "mishap" as a mission
failure, in reality Korabl Sputnik 1 met almost all of its mission
objectives and continued to operate for another four days in its new
orbit. On June 4, as the data from the first mission were still being
assessed, the launch of the first manned Vostok was officially set for
December 1960. While the goal was achievable, there was still much
work to be done.
Prototype Test Flights
The next flight would use a fully functional 1K spacecraft for
an end to end test of the baseline one-day manned mission. To test
the life support systems and obtain more information on the effects of
spaceflight, a pair of dogs called Chaika and Lisichka were carried -
the first dogs to be orbited since the flight of Sputnik 2 (see
"Sputnik 2: The First Animal in Orbit" on the November 1997 issue of
SpaceViews). A whole team of canine cosmonauts had been assembled for
the Vostok test program including some "veterans" from the Soviet's
long running suborbital flight program. The dogs would ride in
individual compartments attached to the ejection seat. Other
biological specimens would also be carried inside the cabin.
On July 28, 1960 the first 1K spacecraft lifted off its pad
but the 8K72 rocket quickly experienced problems. Only 17 seconds
after liftoff the engine in one of the boosters failed. The damaged
booster broke away and the launch vehicle exploded killing both dogs.
With little time to waste, another Vostok-1 and 8K72 were prepared for
flight. On August 19, the 4600 kilogram (10,130 pound) Korabl Sputnik
2 was successfully placed into a 306 by 340 kilometer (190 by 211
mile) orbit carrying another pair of dogs: Belka and Strelka. Both
did well in space but Belka did suffer from the first known bout of
space sickness by the fourth orbit. The next day Korabl Sputnik 2
fired its retrorocket during the eighteenth orbit. This time the
orientation system worked and the craft successfully reentered the
atmosphere. As planned, the dogs landed separately from the capsule
with the ejection seat and survived the flight making them the first
living things to successfully return from orbit.
Inevitable delays in the demanding Vostok development schedule
over the following months ultimately doomed a December manned launch.
But with Mercury's schedule also slipping, another space first was
still within reach. On December 1, 1960 the unmanned Korabl Sputnik 3
was successfully placed into a 180 by 249 kilometer (112 by 155 mile)
orbit by the last 8K72 rocket to fly. This spacecraft carried Pchelka
and Mushka for a repeat of the baseline mission. Unfortunately this
time the TDU-1 failed to operate properly the following day and the
descent module reentered the atmosphere at too steep an angle. The
capsule was incinerated and the dogs perished.
One last 1K mission was attempted this time using the new
8K72K launch vehicle. On December 22, 1960 1K No. 4 lifted off with
the dogs Shutka and Kometa onboard. But the new RO-7 engine in the
upgraded upper stage failed upon ignition damaging the spacecraft and
forcing an abort. For the unmanned test missions, Vostok carried
destruct charges to keep an errant spacecraft from literally falling
into foreign hands. But the charges failed to detonate on command and
the capsule landed intact in the remote Tunguska region of Siberia.
With only 60 hours to find the capsule before a backup timer set off
the charges, rescue teams set out in bad winter weather in a desperate
recovery attempt. Only 12 hours before time expired, rescuers finally
reached the snowbound capsule. Both dogs were still alive inside
despite the -45 C (-49 F) temperatures. The damage caused by the Blok
E engine failure had not only totally disabled the destruct system but
resulted in the ejection seat firing before the hatch blew off leaving
both dogs relatively protected inside the cabin.
While the Vostok program experienced much progress and many
successes through 1960, the 1K failures in December showed that there
were still many engineering problems to solve. With the pressure
growing, next would be the critical 3K test flights and the final push
to put a man in space before the Americans.
Bibliography
Philip Clark, The Soviet Manned Space Program, Orion Books, 1988
James Harford, Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to
Beat America to the Moon, Wiley, 1997
Nicholas L. Johnson, Handbook of Soviet Manned Space Flight, Univelt,
1980
Wayne R. Matson (editor), Cosmonautics: A Colorful History, Cosmos
Books, 1994
John Rhea (editor), Roads to Space: An Oral History of the Soviet
Space Program, Aviation Week Group, 1995
Yuri P. Semenov (editor), Racketno-Kosmicheskaya Korporatsiya
'Energia' Imeni S P Koroleva, RKK Energia (Moscow), 1996 (in Russian)
Timothy Varfolomeyev, "Soviet Rocketry That Conquered Space Part 3:
Lunar Launchings for Impact and Photography", Spaceflight, Vol. 38,
No. 6, pp. 206-208, June 1996
Author
Drew LePage is a physicist and freelance writer specializing in
astronomy and the history of spaceflight. He can be reached at
prometheus1@mediaone.net.
========
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