Aero 版 (精华区)
发信人: bage (网事如疯·春心萌动), 信区: AerospaceScience
标 题: SpaceViews -- 2000 May 8(转载)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2000年12月23日17:53:59 星期六), 转信
【 以下文字转载自 bage 的信箱 】
【 原文由 hitsma@0451.com 所发表 】
[To stop receiving SpaceViews, please follow the instructions at the
end of this message.]
S P A C E V I E W S
Issue 2000.19
2000 May 8
http://www.spaceviews.com/2000/0508/
*** News ***
Scientists Ask NASA to Keep Compton in Orbit
U.S. Improves Quality of GPS Signals
Atlas Launches Weather Satellite
Hubble Discovers "Missing" Hydrogen in Universe
Russia Launches Military Satellite
NEAR Shoemaker Enters Prime Science Orbit
Astronomers Puzzled By "Dog Bone" Asteroid
Glenn Criticizes Russia for Space Station Delays
Delta Rocket Debris Falls in South Africa
Stardust Completes First Round of Dust Collection
SpaceViews Event Horizon
Other News
*** Articles ***
Searching for Life on Mars
*** News ***
Scientists Ask NASA to Keep Compton in Orbit
NASA's plans to deorbit the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory next
month could prove riskier than simply leaving it in orbit, a small but
growing number of scientists and other experts now believe.
Indeed, the existence of backup plans to control the
spacecraft should its gyroscopes fail have left many in the high-
energy astronomy community "mystified" as to why NASA would bring the
otherwise functional spacecraft to a fiery death, while NASA documents
obtained by SpaceViews hint that the decision to deorbit the
spacecraft may have been made months before.
The space agency announced March 24 that it had decided to
deorbit Compton on June 3 over the eastern Pacific Ocean, after a
series of maneuvers starting in late May that will lower the
spacecraft's orbit.
The justification for the decision was based on safety after
one of the three gyroscopes on Compton failed in December. The
spacecraft can maintain proper attitude control with two gyros, but an
additional failure, NASA officials claimed, could cause the spacecraft
to lose attitude control and eventually burn up uncontrollably in the
Earth's atmosphere.
The large size of the spacecraft -- some 15,000 kg (33,000
lbs.) -- means that large pieces of it would survive any reentry and
crash to Earth, endangering people. NASA estimated a 1-in-1000 chance
that an uncontrolled reentry could cause a human casualty.
"There can be no tradeoff between science and human safety,"
said Ed Weiler, NASA associate administrator for space science, at the
March 24 press conference announcing the decision.
To bring the spacecraft down safely, NASA has planned a series
of four thruster burns that will lower the spacecraft's orbit starting
May 31. After a second burn June 1, a pair of maneuvers June 3 will
plunge Compton into the atmosphere above the eastern Pacific, raining
debris over an uninhabited section of ocean.
The problem with this plan, according to one scientist, is
that it fails to take into account the effects of a solar flare. Jim
Ryan, a professor of physics at the University of New Hampshire and a
co-investigator on one of Compton's instruments, notes that a solar
flare can "instantaneously" increase the density of the upper
atmosphere by a factor of ten.
Such an increase, if it took place late in the Compton reentry
procedure, could have a dramatic effect on the reentry plans. "What
was controlled becomes uncontrolled," said Ryan.
Ryan said that NASA planning for the reentry has not taken
this threat into account, and a review of planning documents obtained
by SpaceViews shows no explicit mention of the deleterious effects of
a solar flare.
While the exact probability for a solar flare during the
critical reentry procedure wasn't immediately available, Ryan notes
the relative probability is highest now as the Sun is at the peak of
its 11-year activity cycle. "You'd like to wait until the Sun quiets
down," he said, which won't be until at least 2002.
Moreover, Compton advocates note that there's no urgent need
to deorbit the spacecraft. Backup plans exist for controlling the
spacecraft even if all its remaining gyros fail. In that case, the
casualty odds from a reentry drop to 1-in-4 million, worse than the 1-
in-29 million from a two-gyro reentry but still far better than the 1-
in-1000 odds for an uncontrolled reentry.
According to a NASA presentation titled "CGRO Reentry - Code S
Decision Review", a zero-gyro mode would no longer make a gyro failure
critical. "If the zero gyro mode is determined to be feasible, then
a gyro failure is no longer a critical failure for controlled reentry,
" according to the document.
The same document notes that NASA may be concerned with other
aspects of the spacecraft, though. "The longer we operate, the more
likely it is that we could lose a subsystem critical for controlled
reentry," the document stated.
Still, Ryan said that he and other scientists, as well as even
"senior-level" officials at NASA Headquarters, are "mystified at the
origin and logic of the decision" to deorbit Compton next month, given
the risks and the alternatives.
In addition to the zero-gyro mode, NASA looked at other
alternatives, including a servicing or retrieval mission by the
shuttle, developing software that would allow alternate means of
controlling the spacecraft and thus "save" the gyros for reentry, and
boosting the spacecraft to a higher orbit to delay reentry.
Another NASA presentation obtained by SpaceViews hints that
the decision to deorbit Compton was made at the highest levels of NASA
management as early as mid-December 1999, just days after the gyro
failure. The document quoted Weiler as saying, "For the Record, the
decision has been made to reenter..." at a meeting at NASA
Headquarters on December 17, but provides no additional information on
the context within which that statement was made.
Ryan admits there is no "immediate, direct way" to overturn
NASA's decision to deorbit Compton, so he and other scientists are
turning to the public and to Congress to increase pressure on NASA to
subject their decision to an independent, non-NASA review.
A "Dear Colleague" letter drafted for members of the High
Energy Astrophysics Division of the American Astronomical Society
called on astronomers to contact Congress and request they put
pressure on NASA to review its decision. "It would be a national
tragedy to unnecessarily destroy one of America's Great Observatories,
" the letter stated.
Messages sent by SpaceViews to Compton project officials at
NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center on Friday requesting comment on the
Compton deorbiting plans were not returned.
U.S. Improves Quality of GPS Signals
The United States has ended a long-standing practice of
intentionally degrading the quality of signals from its constellation
of Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, paving the way for more
accurate civilian uses of the system.
Effective midnight Greenwich Mean Time Monday, May 1, the U.S.
military stopped using a feature known as Selective Availability (SA)
that intentionally reduced the accuracy of GPS signals available to
non-military users.
"In plain English, we are unscrambling the signal," said
presidential science advisor Neal Lane during a Monday press
conference that announced the change.
"The decision to discontinue SA is the latest measure in an
on-going effort to make GPS more responsive to civil and commercial
users worldwide," U.S. President Bill Clinton said in a statement.
Clinton said he reached his decision after receiving a
recommendation from Secretary of State William Cohen and consulting
with a number of federal agencies, including the Commerce, State, and
Transportation Departments, and the CIA. "They realized that
worldwide transportation safety, scientific, and commercial interests
could best be served by discontinuation of SA," said Clinton.
The U.S. military implemented SA to keep potential enemies
from using the highly-accurate GPS signals to locate and target
American or allied forces. However, the Defense Department now
believes it can maintain national security by enabling SA only in
certain regions, rather than the entire Earth. "Threat assessments
conclude that setting SA to zero at this time would have minimal
impact on national security," said Clinton.
With SA turned on, civilian receivers could rely on positions
that were accurate to no more than 100 meters (330 feet). With SA
off, users should now get positions as accurate as 20 meters (66
feet), and potentially as good as 10 meters (33 feet).
Government officials believe that this improvement in accuracy
will open up new civilian applications of GPS on top of the existing,
growing market for GPS receivers and other applications.
"By providing the GPS service free of charge, openly
publishing receiver design specifications and encouraging open market
competition, the U.S. government has fostered an estimated $8 billion
global market for GPS related goods and services," said Cheryl
Shavers, Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology. "With the removal
of Selective Availability, we can expect this market to more than
double within the next three years as this compelling technology
reaches the hands of mass consumers everywhere."
The U.S. plans additional enhancements to the GPS system that
are primarily designed to enhance civilian use of it. A second GPS
signal will be added to the system in 2003 with a third to come online
two years later. Groundbased enhancement systems are also in the
works to further improve accuracy in specific regions such as
airports.
The military also plans to gradually replace the existing
fleet of 24 GPS satellites in orbit with more advanced versions, known
as Block IIF, starting in 2002.
The introduction of higher-accuracy GPS could throw a wrench
in European plans to develop a competing system. The European Space
Agency and the European Union are jointly studying a plan called
Galileo that would deploy a European version of the GPS system by
2008.
Europe's interest in Galileo grew out of concerns over
becoming dependent on a system run by the U.S. military. ESA and the
EU had planned to get private industry in Europe involved in the
project, potentially turning Galileo into a commercial system that
would provide high-accuracy positioning services for a fee.
Atlas Launches Weather Satellite
An Atlas 2A booster successfully launched a long-delayed
American weather satellite early Wednesday morning.
The Atlas 2A lifted off from Pad 36A at Cape Canaveral at 3:07
am EDT (0707 UT), about 40 minutes late because of problems with
ground equipment. The booster placed into a geosynchronous transfer
orbit the Geostationary Operational Environment Satellite (GOES) L
spacecraft, NASA reported.
"We're off to a great start," said Martin Davis, GOES project
manager at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, in a statment released
Wednesday. "The spacecraft is now in transfer orbit and all data
indicates we have a healthy spacecraft."
A set of three thruster burns are planned to place GOES-L into
geosynchronous orbit. The first, lasting 53 minutes, took place late
Wednesday evening. It was to be followed by a 30-minute burn May 7
and a six-minute burn May 9.
GOES-L, which will be renamed GOES-11 once it reaches its
desired position in geosynchronous orbit at 104 degrees west longitude
later this month, will serve as an on-orbit backup to two existing
American weather satellites, GOES-10 and GOES-8.
Meteorologists were particularly concerned about GOES-8, which
serves the eastern United States and Atlantic Ocean. That spacecraft
is a year beyond its planned five-year operational life, and a failure
of the spacecraft without an available backup could have hindered
efforts to predict hurricanes later this year.
"GOES-11 will ensure continuity of GOES data from two GOES,
especially for the Atlantic hurricane season," said Gerry Dittberner,
GOES program manager for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, the agency that will operate the satellite.
Built by Space Systems/Loral, GOES-L was scheduled for launch
a year ago, but was delayed shortly before launch when the Atlas
booster was grounded because of concerns with the engine in the
booster's Centaur upper stage. A similar version of that engine, used
in the upper stage of the Delta 3, exploded during a launch, leading
to an investigation into the engine design.
The Atlas eventually returned to flight last fall, but other
delays, including a desire not to launch the satellite during the
spring or fall "eclipse season" when the Earth briefly eclipses the
Sun for satellites in geosynchronous orbit, pushed the launch back
until now.
The launch is the third for the Atlas booster this year, after
the February launch of the Hispasat 1C communications satellite on at
Atlas 2AS in February and the Atlas 2A launch of a military
communications satellite in January. The next Atlas launch is the
inaugural launch of the Atlas 3A booster, carrying the Eutelsat W4
communications satellite. That launch is currently scheduled for May
15.
Hubble Discovers "Missing" Hydrogen in Universe
Using an innovative detection technique, astronomers announced
Wednesday that they have detected the "missing" hydrogen that makes up
half of the ordinary mass of the universe.
The astronomers, from Princeton University and the University
of Wisconsin, indirectly located the otherwise-invisible hydrogen by
detecting a tracer, ionized oxygen, in clouds of gas in intergalactic
space.
"This is a successful, fundamental test of cosmological
models," said Princeton's Todd Tripp. "This provides strong evidence
that the models are on the right track."
Astronomers had long predicted that such clouds of gas had
formed in the aftermath of the Big Bang, creating vast, intricate
structures of gas. Clusters of galaxies had been predicted to form
where those filaments intersected, heating up the gas. However, until
now that gas had eluded detection even though it was believed to
comprise up to half the mass of normal matter un the universe.
In the past astronomers had tried to detect the extremely hot
gas by looking for x-rays emitted by it. However, those efforts had
not provided conclusive results since astronomers had difficulty
determining what x-rays came from the gas versus other sources,
ranging from our galaxy to distant quasars.
Instead, Tripp and colleagues used an ultraviolet spectrograph
on the Hubble Space Telescope to observe light from a quasar. The
Hubble data showed evidence of spectral absorption "fingerprints"
caused by highly ionized oxygen atoms, created by stellar explosions,
that are mixed in with the hydrogen.
The hydrogen itself is too hot to be detected directly because
at the high temperatures of the clouds -- estimated to be at least
100,000 kelvins (180,000 degrees Fahrenheit) -- all the hydrogen atoms
have been stripped of their sole electron, eliminating any spectral
signature. Oxygen, with eight electrons, is able to hold on to a few
at even those high temperatures and thus can absorb specific
wavelengths of ultraviolet light.
"This result beautifully illustrates the power of spectroscopy
for revealing fundamental information about the presence and nature of
the gaseous matter in the universe," said spectroscopist Blair Savage.
While the discovery helps identify the ordinary, visible mass
in the universe, it doesn't provide any additional information on the
missing "dark" matter that makes up the vast majority of the
universe's mass.
Astronomers last month said that visible mass may make up only
five percent of the density of the universe. Dark matter makes up an
additional 30 percent, with the rest -- 65 percent -- from an
unidentified "dark energy" that may also explain why the expansion
rate of the universe appears to be accelerating.
Russia Launches Military Satellite
A Russian Soyuz rocket launched Wednesday what outside
observers believe to be a classified reconnaissance satellite for that
country's military.
The Soyuz booster lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in
Kazakhstan at approximately 9:25 am EDT (1325 UT) Wednesday. The
spacecraft placed into a low, inclined orbit a spacecraft designated
Kosmos 2370 by Russian officials.
The Russian Aviation and Space Agency, nor other Russian
government agencies, had any comment on the purpose of Kosmos 2370.
Several media outlets, including space.com and Space News, speculated
that the satellite was a new generation of reconnaissance satellite.
Russia had last launched a reconnaissance satellite in August
1998, when it placed a satellite of the Yantar class into orbit on a
Soyuz from the Plesetsk spaceport in northern Russia. That
spacecraft, which returns capsules of film to Earth rather than
electronically transmitting images as American satellites do,
completed its mission by December.
The launch is the first Russian military launch in three
months. On February 3 a Zenit 2 booster placed into orbit Kosmos
2369, believed to be a signals intelligence satellite. Russia also
launched a pair of military satellites in late December.
NEAR Shoemaker Enters Prime Science Orbit
An extended thruster burn on Sunday, April 30 put NASA's NEAR
Shoemaker spacecraft into its desired low orbit around the asteroid
Eros.
The spacecraft fired its thrusters for two minutes and 20
seconds at around 12:15 pm EDT (1615 UT) Sunday, April 30. The
maneuver shifted the spacecraft from an elliptical 50 by 100 km (31 by
62 mi.) orbit into a circular 50-km orbit.
The maneuver was one of the largest completed by the
spacecraft since it entered orbit around the asteroid on February 14.
In addition to lowering NEAR's orbit, the burn also despun the
spacecraft's momentum wheels, used to keep the spacecraft pointing
properly. If the wheels had not been despun they would have
eventually "saturated" and put the spacecraft into a protective safe
mode.
NEAR Shoemaker will spend the next two months in this orbit,
considered ideal for a number of instruments on the spacecraft. The
spacecraft's laser rangefinder and an x-ray and gamma-ray spectrometer
are optimized to work from this orbit to determine the shape and
composition, respectively, of the asteroid.
NEAR Shoemaker arrived at Eros on February 14 in an
elliptical, 321 km (199 mi.) by 366 km (227 mi.) orbit. A pair of
thruster burns in late February and early March put the spacecraft
into a circular 200-km (124-mi.) orbit. Two more maneuvers early last
month put it into a circular 100-km orbit, which was followed by an
April 22 burn that placed it into a 50 by 100 km orbit.
Later this year NEAR will be moved out into a higher orbit, up
to 500 km (310 mi.) above the asteroid to gain a global view of the
asteroid, before moving in very close to the asteroid by the end of
the year, with the possibility of even "landing" the spacecraft on the
surface at the end of its mission next year.
NEAR Shoemaker, formerly known as the Near Earth Asteroid
Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft, was renamed in March to honor the late
Eugene Shoemaker, one of the pioneers in the field of planetary
geology. Shoemaker also led one of the early efforts to search for
near-Earth asteroids like Eros.
Astronomers Puzzled By "Dog Bone" Asteroid
Astronomers released Thursday radar images of a large main
belt asteroid that, for reasons as yet unknown, vaguely resembles a
metallic dog bone the size of New Jersey.
The images of the asteroid 216 Kleopatra, published in the May
5 issue of the journal Science, show that the asteroid, 217 km (135
mi.) long and 94 km (58 mi.) wide, consists of two distinct lobes
connected by a long, cylindrical region.
While dual-lobed asteroids have been observed in the past, in
previous cases the two sections were closely connected, and not as far
apart from each other as seen here. "With its dog bone shape,
Kleopatra is one of the most unusual asteroids we've seen in the solar
system," said JPL's Steven Ostro, leader of a team of astronomers who
performed the observations.
Ostro and colleagues generated the images by bouncing radar
signals transmitted from the giant Arecibo radio observatory in Puerto
Rico off the asteroid. The technique has been used in the past to
generate images of asteroids at resolutions far higher than possible
at visible light wavelengths.
The astronomers got a strong reflection of the radar signals
off Kleopatra, suggesting it has a largely metallic interior. This
conclusion is supported by the color of the asteroid from past
observations, which hints that the asteroid's surface contains metal.
The bizarre shape of Kleopatra, though, remains puzzling to
astronomers. "The shape may have been produced by the collision of
two objects that had previously been thoroughly fractured and ground
into piles of loosely consolidated rubble," said Scott Hudson of
Washington State University. "Or, Kleopatra may once have been two
separate lobes in orbit around each other with empty space between
them, with subsequent impacts filling in the area between the lobes
with debris."
"What is clear," said Michael Nolan of Arecibo Observatory,
"is that this object's collision history is extremely unusual."
"It is amazing that nature has produced a giant metallic
object with such a peculiar shape," said Ostro. "We can think of some
possible scenarios, but at this point none is very satisfying."
"The object's existence," he concluded, "is a perplexing
mystery that tells us how far we have to go to understand more about
asteroid shapes and collisions."
Glenn Criticizes Russia for Space Station Delays
Former astronaut and senator John Glenn sharply criticized
Russia last week for delays in the assembly of the International Space
Station.
Speaking during a live Space Day webcast Thursday, Glenn put
the cause of the station's continuing delays squarely on problems with
Russia.
"Their failure to get their modules up on time is why we're
about a year behind," Glenn said. "They're holding up the work of all
16 nations."
While not specifically naming it, Glenn was likely referring
to the Zvezda service module, a key component of the station.
Originally scheduled for launch in the spring of 1998, Russia now
plans to launch the module in July. Funding problems have been blamed
for the delays, although Russian officials have said in the past that
"technical challenges", and not financing, were the cause of the
delays.
Plans to launch Zvezda in July appears to be firmer now than
previously-announced launch dates. The module has been completed and
Russia is only waiting for the Proton rocket -- the type that will be
used to launch the module -- to complete one or more additional
successful flights to confirm the problems that caused a pair of
launch failures last year have been resolved.
On Friday NASA's public affairs office released instructions
for journalists to follow to gain press accreditation for the launch
of the module from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, an
additional sign that the module is on track for a launch this summer.
Russian officials have been defensive about ISS delays in the
past, noting that American components have also run into delays, but
that those problems have been masked by the continuing Russian delays.
That view has also been echoed by NASA administrator Dan
Goldin. "To blame all of the schedule problems on the Russians is
wrong," Goldin told Congress in February. "We had our own problems
along with the Russians."
Glenn, though, seemed unconcerned about any Russian reaction
to his comments. "I don't care if this gets over to Russia," he said
of his remarks.
The comments stood out during the three-hour Space Day webcast
targeted primarily towards students. Several other former astronauts,
including Sally Ride, the first American woman in space, and others
participated during the educational event.
Delta Rocket Debris Falls in South Africa
A pair of "flaming balls" that crashed in South Africa last
month are likely debris from the upper stage of a Delta rocket,
aerospace experts believe.
On Thursday, April 27, a large, round metal object crashed to
Earth on a farm about 25 km (15 mi.) from the town of Worcester, in
the Western Cape province of South Africa east of Cape Town. The
following day a similar object was reported to have crashed on a farm
near the nearby town of Durbanville, although that object likely fell
the same day as the first object.
Witnesses told South African reporters they heard a pair of
gunshot-like sounds just before each impact. The Worcester object
reportedly came within a few meters of a person walking along a farm
road just before impact.
The Worcester object was described to be a round metal object
weighing about 30 kg (66 lbs.) that made a dent about 20 cm (8 inches)
across in the ground. The Durbanville object, on the other hand, was
an oblong object about 1 meter (3.3 feet) wide by 1.5 meters (5 feet)
long, with a valve at one end. While heaver than the Worcester
object, with a mass of 50 kg (110 lbs.), it made no visible dent in
the ground on impact.
The two objects are believed to be parts from an upper stage
of a Delta booster that launched a Global Positioning System (GPS)
navigation satellite from Cape Canaveral in 1996. The only other
candidate is an upper stage from the Soyuz booster that launched a
Progress cargo spacecraft to Mir last month, but its orbit did not
take it over South Africa at the time of its decay.
That conclusion was supported by Nicholas Johnson, a NASA
orbital debris expert, who told a South African radio program that the
size of the objects as well as their time of impact led him to believe
the Delta upper stage was the source of the objects. Johnson also
said NASA would likely contact South African officials about the
debris and request to see the objects.
This is not the first time debris from a Delta or other rocket
booster has crashed to Earth. In January 1997 two pieces of a Delta 2
upper stage launched in April 1996 crashed in Texas. A fuel tank
weighing about 225 kg (500 lbs.) crashed just 45 meters (150 feet)
from a farmhouse near Georgetown, Texas, while a smaller pressure
sphere landed near Seguin, Texas.
In late February a dome-shaped object, about 1.5 meters tall
and 1.5 meters in diameter, washed up on a beach near Corpus Christi,
Texas. NASA experts who studied the debris believe it is a nose cone
from an Ariane 5 booster launched from French Guiana and swept by
currents in the Gulf of Mexico to the Texas coast.
While these impacts caused no damage, concerns about the
hazards of falling space debris led NASA to decide in March to deorbit
the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory in June, as it was one gyroscope
failure away from losing attitude control. Pieces of the spacecraft
as large as one ton are expected to survive any reentry, and NASA
estimated that there was a 1-in-1000 chance of a death if the craft
reentered uncontrollably.
Instead, Compton's orbit will be lowered with a series of
maneuvers in late May and early June, concluding with a June 3 reentry
over an uninhabited region of the eastern Pacific Ocean.
Stardust Completes First Round of Dust Collection
NASA's Stardust spacecraft has successfully completed its
first round of interstellar dust collection, project officials
reported last week.
On Monday, May 1, Stardust lowered its "mitt" of lightweight
aerogel used to capture intact small particles of dust believed to
originate from outside our solar system. That collector was
successfully stowed into its cruise position, project officials
reported late last week.
Since February 22 the spacecraft had its collector extended in
the first of two planned efforts to capture particles of interstellar
dust. A second interstellar dust collection phase is planned for mid-
2002.
In addition to interstellar dust, Stardust will use a similar
technique to capture dust from comet Wild-2 when it flies by the comet
in January 2004. The dust will be stored on the spacecraft and
returned to Earth, where a sample return container will parachute to a
landing in Utah in 2006.
Stardust, a Discovery-class low-cost space science mission
launched in February 1999, is breaking new ground with this dust
collection effort. "It's the first time anyone has attempted to catch
anything like this and bring it home," said project manager Kenneth
Atkins at JPL. "After all the design, building, testing, and now the
flying of this spacecraft over the past four years, the moment of
truth for the collector is here."
Because the dust is traveling at a high velocity relative to
the spacecraft -- up to 25 kilometers a second (56,000 mph) -- mission
planners had to take great care to stop the particles in a relatively
short space without vaporizing them.
The solution they hit upon was to use aerogel: a lightweight
but strong solid just a few times as dense as air. The aerogel in
Stardust's collector is able to stop the particles and dissipate their
high kinetic energy without destroying the dust.
Other instruments on Stardust have also been analyzing dust
that had hit the spacecraft, and turned up interesting results. Last
month German scientists discovered the existence of "tar-like" organic
molecules in the dust, far larger than anything ever seen in the past
in space. The existence of such particles could have implications for
astrobiology, in particular the formation of life on the early Earth
or other worlds.
While such results are intriguing, other scientists, such as
Stardust principal investigator Donald Brownlee of the University of
Washington, can't wait until Stardust returns in 2006 with the dust
samples for analysis in their labs. "I'm thrilled at the thought of
being able to look at and study these particles firsthand," he said.
SpaceViews Event Horizon
May 8 Titan 4 launch of the Defense Support Program (DSP) 20
early-warning satellite from Cape Canaveral, Florida
between 9:30 am - 1:30 pm EDT (1330-1730 UT)
May 10 Delta 2 launch of a GPS satellite from Cape Canaveral,
Florida at 9:48 pm EDT (0148 UT May 11)
May 15 Atlas 3A inaugural launch of the Eutelsat W4
communications satellite from Cape Canaveral, Florida
at 5:37 pm EDT (2137 UT)
May 18 Launch of shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-101 from
Kennedy Space Center, Florida at 6:33 am EDT
(1033 UT)
May 24-26 5th Annual ISU International Symposium: "The Space
Transportation Market: Evolution or Revolution?",
Strasbourg, France
May 25-29 International Space Development Conference, Tucson, AZ
June 10 Silicon Valley Space Enterprise Symposium,
San Jose, CA
Other News
ILOVEYOU, NASA: Several of NASA's field centers were hard hit by the
so-called "Love Bug" computer virus on Thursday. The virus infected
computer systems around the world via email messages titled
"ILOVEYOU", enticing people to open the attached "love letter" that
turned out to be a Visual Basic program that forwarded itself to every
address in that computer's address book. Hardest hit was the Johnson
Space Center, whose email systems and public Web site were offline for
much of Thursday and Friday, but several other centers also suffered
effects of the virus. Even at an organization as high-tech as NASA,
there are plenty of people naive enough to open a suspect file
attachment.
Sorry, No Doomsday: Much to the consternation of doomsayers, the
world did not come to an end Friday when the planets entered a rare,
but not unprecedented, alignment. Starting Friday the Earth was on
one side of the Sun while the other five planets visible to the naked
eye -- Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn -- were all roughly
lined up on the opposite side of the Sun. The alignment, first
noticed by Belgian astronomer Jean Meeus about 40 years ago, was later
seized by doomsayers in books such as "5/5/2000" as an event that
would cause a global catastrophe. However, astronomers advised
(correctly) that the gravitational influence of the planets is
virtually zero. "A Boeing 747 flying at 30,000 feet produces a
greater tidal effect on Earth's surface than do all the planets on May
5, 2000," said Astronomy magazine associate editor Richard Talcott.
Dusty Io: Volcanoes on the Jovian moon Io are the source for long
streams of dust extending outward from the planet, scientists reported
last week. The international team of scientists used data from a dust
detector on Galileo's spacecraft to confirm earlier speculation that
the streams of dust, first discovered by the Ulysses spacecraft nearly
a decade ago, are created by volcanic eruptions on Io. The dust is
accelerated away from Jupiter by the planet's powerful magnetic field
to distances as great at 290 million km (180 million mi.) The dust,
though, makes only a small contribution to the overall amount of dust
in the solar system, which is dominated by particles from comets and
asteroids.
Hope for Iridium? Motorola, the largest corporate backer of the
failed Iridium global satellite phone service, is still hopeful that a
buyer can be found before the system's satellites are deorbited.
Speaking at the company's annual meeting May 1, Motorola president
Robert Growney told Reuters that a search for a buyer is ongoing.
"Hopefully very soon we will see a new operator of Iridium emerge," he
said. Iridium filed for bankruptcy protection last August and
announced in March it would liquidate its assets, including deorbiting
its satellites, because no qualified buyer for the company could be
found. Growney didn't provide any details on what offers, if any,
Motorola had received recently.
Briefly: Cosmonauts on the Russian space station Mir are preparing
for a spacewalk scheduled for May 12. Sergei Zalyotin and Alexander
Kalery plan to test sealing material that could be used on the
exterior of the station, disassemble scientific equipment, and inspect
the Mir core module during the EVA... NASA's Mars sample return
program will likely be delayed on the order of six years, Space News
reported in its May 8 issue. Ken Nealson, NASA project scientist for
the sample return effort, said that the sample return mission,
originally set to begin in 2003, would likely not start until 2009.
"This is just a guess," he advised, "but it certainly won't be 2003."
NASA was going to cooperate with the French space agency CNES on the
missions, which included flights in 2003 and 2005.
-----------------------ADVERTISEMENT------------------------
A new book from the editor of SpaceViews:
"The Astronomer's Computer Companion:
Explore the Universe with Your Personal Computer"
by Jeff Foust and Ron LaFon
"A host of Internet sites, and a solid, well-presented
grounding in basic astronomy." -- New York Times
For more information and to buy the book:
http://www.spaceviews.com/book/
-----------------------ADVERTISEMENT------------------------
*** Articles ***
Searching for Life on Mars
by Bruce Moomaw
[Editor's Note: This is the latest in a series of articles by writer
Bruce Moomaw on last month's Astrobiology Science Conference. Two
previous articles, on the prospects of life on Europa and the future
of Mars exploration, were published in our April 17 issue, and a third
on the habitability of Mars was published in our May 1 issue. An
additional article about extrasolar planets will be published in a
future issue.]
While some scientists continue to debate whether Mars was ever
hospitable to life, other scientists at a recent astrobiology science
conference are concentrating on the best ways to look for such life,
using everything from Martian meteorites to instruments on future
spacecraft missions.
Researchers presenting at the first Astrobiology Science
Conference at NASA's Ames Research Center last month touched upon a
variety of questions in the debate regarding life on Mars, ranging
from the famous (or infamous) Martian meteorite ALH84001 to claims
that life may have originated on Mars and been transferred to the
Earth.
The Ongoing Case of ALH84001
The seemingly endless debate continued at the conference over
whether Mars meteorite ALH84001 does or does not contain microfossil
and chemical evidence of ancient Martian microbes. The Johnson Space
Center team who originally reported the evidence repeated that tiny
magnetite crystals in the meteorite look very much like some crystals
that seem to be made only by strains of Earthly bacteria (this seems
to be their strongest piece of remaining evidence). And Benjamin P.
Weiss repeated his recent claim that microscopic magnetic patterns
show that the meteorite's carbonate globules -- which contain the
possible evidence -- were never above 40 deg C (104 deg F), contrary
to the view of others that who hold that they were created by water
heated far above boiling by a volcano or a meteor impact and so could
never have contained live microbes. But other scientists continue to
doubt both opinions.
And the JSC team, as they had done at the recent Lunar and
Planetary Science Conference, also agreed with Allen Steele and J.K.
Toporski that new studies show that this meteorite -- and apparently
all other Martian meteorites -- have been contaminated to their very
cores with identifiable Earth microbes. Indeed, they now think it
impossible to rule out the possibility that any organic compound found
in any meteorite could actually be Earth contamination! Not only have
they thus dropped one of their arguments for Martian life in ALH84001
(the "PAH" organic compounds found in it); they have concluded that
using any meteorite for evidence of extraterrestrial life may be very
difficult. Toporski added in his talk that analysis of carbon
isotopes in a meteorite's organics might be able to settle whether
they had an Earthly or extraterrestrial origin, but he was far from
certain of this.
How to Look for Life
Even if ALH84001 turns up no evidence of life on Mars, it has
raised new questions on the best ways to search for life. A number of
presentations at the conference addressed techniques for detecting
life.
JPL's Ken Nealson provided a rundown on recent research into
this major problem. As he pointed out, intriguing shapes can point
toward possible living microbes or microfossils -- but by themselves
they are not an infallible guide; there are quite a few nonliving
mineral processes that produce spheres and ovules that look strikingly
like microbes. One aspect of this problem is the claims made by
Robert Folk and some other biologists that they have proven the
existence of extremely tiny "nannobacteria", far smaller than
previously known bacteria, and in fact as small as the possible
microbial "microfossils" seen in ALH84001 and some other Martian (and
even non-Martian) meteorites. Most biologists say flatly that there
is no way such tiny bodies could possibly contain biochemical
processes complex enough to support life but there's still enough
doubt that the debate goes on.
Hojatollah Vali and some other scientists repeated their claim
that they have in fact identified complex biochemicals in "living"
nannobacteria; if this is confirmed, a whole new revolution is about
to open up in biology -- and one with enormous astrobiological
implications. And, as their supporters have pointed out, certainly
full-blown complex cells did not suddenly appear out of nonliving
molecules -- there had to be some kind of intermediate stage in which
living things were smaller and less complex, and nannobacteria may
possibly be the survivors of that early age, both here and on other
worlds.
Regardless of whether nannobacteria are real, though, objects
that look like microbes absolutely must be chemically analyzed to
confirm their identity as life. Nealson proposed that the best
procedure for identifying microbial fossils is to first locate areas
within rocks that may contain them (using ultraviolet fluorescence,
which is sensitive to organics, and perhaps even X-ray CAT scans of
rocks to look for areas of peculiar density), then to examine these
areas with various kinds of microscopy (whether optical or electron),
and finally to try to analyze the composition of any microbe-like
objects that turn up. One technique that he and several other
researchers at the Conference suggested was X-ray spectroscopy of
possible microbial fossils, which can measure the percentages of
various elements in them-- and thus clearly distinguish them from the
ordinary minerals, produced by nonliving processes, in which they are
embedded.
Perhaps the most promising new technique, though -- which drew
great attention at the conference -- is "Raman spectroscopy", which
makes use of the fact that when a substance is illuminated by a one-
frequency laser beam, a very small fraction of its light is scattered
at new frequencies whose spectrum is determined by the makeup of the
substance. This technique has turned out to be both very sensitive to
small traces of organic compounds and capable of clearly identifying a
wide variety of complex ones (including chlorophyll, nucleic acids,
and amino acids); it does so without modifying the substance being
examined; and it can easily be used in a microscope or a fiber optic
probe of layers of rock or soil. A tiny Raman spectrometer was
supposed to be carried on the 2003 U.S. Mars lander, designed to
analyze inorganic minerals but also capable of sensing traces of
organic compounds in Mars rocks, and while that mission has been
cancelled, it seems certain that this instrument will be flown to both
Mars and Europa in the near future, in forms more specifically
designed to focus on the search for biological compounds.
Are We Martians?
Even as skepticism about evidence of life in ALH84001
continues, there was considerable optimism over the more general
question of whether rocks blasted off the surfaces of their planets by
gigantic meteor impacts can carry live microbes between Earth and
Mars. In her talk reviewing the latest studies of the feasibility of
such "panspermia", Gerda Horneck confirmed recent comments by other
researchers that it is quite feasible at least between planets fairly
near each other. The most serious obstacle may be the high lethality
of solar ultraviolet light in space to even the toughest spores -- it
kills fully 98% of them within 10 seconds -- but they are adequately
shielded from it by just a millimeter (0.04 in.) of rock. Galactic
cosmic rays are far more penetrating, but high-energy ones are also
surprisingly rare; Horneck's calculations indicate that one spore out
of 10,000 can avoid a lethal cosmic ray for 700,000 years even if
totally unshielded, and for 1.1 million years if shielded by 70 cm
(27.5 in.) of rock. The best direct evidence is the spores carried by
the LDEF satellite for six straight years before its recovery; they
were completely unprotected from everything in the space environment
except ultraviolet light, but 1/1000 of them survived in fine shape.
Norman Sleep's calculations indicate that nowadays 10 to 100 Martian
meteorites strike Earth each year and that one out of 10,000 of those
ejected by a giant Martian meteor impact spends less than 10,000 years
in space before arriving here.
The implications are obvious, especially when you consider
that the Mars-Earth meteorite transfer rate was 1000 times higher
during the Solar System's early days. Nor can the ejection of Earth
rocks and their transfer to Mars be ruled out, although of course this
is much harder given Earth's high gravity: Sleep has calculated
elsewhere that such transfers are at least 20 times rarer. This still
means that there is an excellent chance that the two planets have
naturally cross-contaminated each other with at least a few species of
whatever microbes they evolved. Mars meteorite specialist H. Jay
Melosh told me at the conference that he thinks such transfers have in
fact been common enough that there is almost no point in worrying
about any significant ecological dangers from the human transfer of
Martian surface samples to Earth or the landing of contaminated Earth
probes on Mars -- let alone human disease dangers from Mars germs.
In a poster, Kevin Zahnle repeated his own still more radical
view: the strong possibility that we may all be descendants of Martian
microbes! During the "heavy bombardment" era, impacts of giant
asteroids and comets on Earth were common, and their effects on Earth
life would have been devastating; there's a good chance that it was
repeatedly destroyed during this "Hadean" era and had to repeatedly
reappear. Earth's oceans would have been able to absorb much of the
heat from these impacts, but on those occasions when an impact was big
enough to boil them into steam, it would have taken thousands of years
for the planet to cool down enough for surface liquid water to
reappear. Mars lacked big oceans but because of its weaker gravity,
big impacts would have been rarer, and when they did occur much of the
hot vaporized rock would have been flung into space instead of
clinging to the planet. Thus, subsurface Martian microbes might have
had less trouble surviving than the microbes of Earth. Zahnle
concludes: "Overall, early Mars may have been safer from impact
sterilization than early Earth, and probably was habitable before the
Earth-Moon system formed."
Despite this seemingly unorthodox view, Zahnle believes this
concept is becoming more widely accepted in the scientific community
in recent years. "This view of the solar system has gone from
speculation to truism in less than five years," he says.
As Horneck pointed out during her talk, this theory might also
explain the remarkable speed with which life appeared on Earth after
the heavy bombardment ended and the Earth's crust cooled down enough
to allow it to remain -- a few hundred million years at most. Until
recently, it's been assumed that this simply means that the evolution
of life is easy enough that it's likely to be common in the Universe.
But if Zahnle's view is correct, life may very well have evolved
earlier -- and a good deal more slowly -- on Mars, and Martian
microbes were then transferred to Earth and seeded this planet before
any native Earth life got the chance to evolve at all.
While it wasn't stated at the conference, I think this has big
astrobiological implications. Even if we do find present or past life
on Mars, unless it's radically different biochemically it may not
constitute any evidence that life is common in the Universe -- it may
well be that life evolved by an extremely rare chance on either Earth
or Mars, and that it was then transferred to the other planet by
meteorites. By contrast, the meteorite transfer between either planet
and Europa is virtually nonexistent -- so if we find life on Europa,
it really will serve as evidence that life is common in the Universe.
========
This has been the May 8, 2000, issue of SpaceViews.
SpaceViews is also available on the Web at:
http://www.spaceviews.com/
or via anonymous FTP from ftp.seds.org:
ftp://ftp.seds.org/pub/info/newsletters/spaceviews/text/20000508.txt
To unsubscribe from SpaceViews, send mail to:
majordomo@spaceviews.com
In the body (not subject) of the message, type:
unsubscribe spaceviews
For editorial questions and article submissions for SpaceViews,
including letters to the editor, contact the editor, Jeff Foust, at
jeff@spaceviews.com
For questions about the SpaceViews mailing list, please contact
spaceviews-approval@spaceviews.com.
--
※ 转载:.哈工大紫丁香 bbs.hit.edu.cn.[FROM: es.hit.edu.cn]
Powered by KBS BBS 2.0 (http://dev.kcn.cn)
页面执行时间:608.072毫秒