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发信人: bage (网事如疯·春心萌动), 信区: AerospaceScience
标 题: SpaceViews -- 2000 April 24(转载)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2000年12月23日17:54:10 星期六), 转信
【 以下文字转载自 bage 的信箱 】
【 原文由 hitsma@0451.com 所发表 】
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S P A C E V I E W S
Issue 2000.17
2000 April 24
http://www.spaceviews.com/2000/0424/
*** News ***
Shuttle Countdown Proceeds Smoothly
Mir Air Leak Reportedly Fixed
Ariane Launches Communications Satellite
Proton Launches European Communications Satellite
Delta Launch Scrubbed Again
U.S. and Brazil Sign Launch Agreement
Commercial Practices May Be Misapplied to Aerospace
General: U.S. Military Doesn't Need Separate Space Force
Terra Spacecraft "Open for Business"
Astronomers Unveil Prototype of New SETI Telescope
SpaceViews Event Horizon
Other News
*** Articles ***
TIROS: The First Weather Satellite
*** News ***
Shuttle Countdown Proceeds Smoothly
The countdown towards Monday afternoon's launch of the shuttle
Atlantis continued smoothly through the day Sunday, with no technical
or weather problems reported.
Atlantis is scheduled to lift off on mission STS-101 Monday
afternoon at 4:15 pm EDT (2015 UT) from pad 39A at the Kennedy Space
Center. As of Sunday evening there were no reports of any technical
problems with the shuttle that could delay the launch.
Weather conditions are also appearing to cooperate.
Forecasters are calling for a 70 percent chance of acceptable weather
for Monday's launch, with a small chance of thunderstorms the only
weather concern for the launch.
Preparations for the launch have been proceeding without
problems since technicians replaced a faulty power drive unit (PDU) in
the tail of the shuttle April 12. The PDU, which operates the
shuttle's combination rudder/speed brake, was tested a few days later
and given a clean bill of health early last week.
"We weren't that worried about each technical task" involved
in the PDU replacement, said Ed Mango, NASA Shuttle project engineer.
"I think the most challenging part of this job was integrating the
multiple tasks into one smooth plan."
STS-101 will be the first mission to the International Space
Station (ISS) since the STS-96 shuttle mission nearly a year ago.
Atlantis will be docked to ISS for six of the ten days of the mission
as the seven-person crew performs maintenance and repairs of the
station's Zarya control module and Unity docking node, including the
replacement of a faulty battery in the Zarya module that was noticed
by controllers last year.
"STS-101 effectively jump-starts us back into assembling the
International Space Station," said shuttle program manager Ron
Dittemore during a pre-launch briefing Saturday.
The mission was originally scheduled for launch only after
Russia launched the Zvezda service module to the International Space
Station so that the station could be outfitted for its first permanent
crew. However, with the service module launch delayed until July, and
the need to perform maintenance on the two ISS modules currently in
orbit, NASA split the original STS-101 mission into two parts.
STS-106, the second half of the original STS-101 mission and
tentatively scheduled for launch in August, will perform the remainder
of the tasks originally scheduled for STS-101. The first ISS crew of
one American and two Russians would then be launched on a Soyuz by
late this year.
STS-101 will also be the first flight of Atlantis since
September 1997, when it flew mission STS-86, the seventh shuttle-Mir
docking mission. After that mission the shuttle underwent an extensive
overhaul and upgrade period at a Boeing facility in Palmdale,
California.
STS-101 is commanded by veteran astronaut Jim Halsell, with
Scott Horowitz as pilot. The five mission specialists on STS-101 are
Mary Ellen Weber, Jeffrey Williams, James Voss, Susan Helms, and
Russian cosmonaut Yuri Usachev. The latter three will also be the
second long-duration crew to stay on ISS, starting next year.
Should STS-101 lift off as planned Monday afternoon, it will
return to Earth with a landing at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida,
on May 4 -- Space Day -- at approximately 12:44 pm EDT (1644 UT).
Mir Air Leak Reportedly Fixed
Cosmonauts have apparently located the source of a small but
persistent air leak on the Russian space station Mir and repaired it,
MirCorp company officials said last week.
Cosmonauts Sergei Zalyotin and Alexander Kalery located the
air leak early Wednesday in a pressure gauge attached to the hatch
that seals off the damaged Spektr module from the rest of the station.
The cosmonauts heard what they believed to be the hiss of escaping air
from the gauge.
Zalyotin and Kalery installed a "sealing plug" on the hatch,
designed to seal off the leak. The next day pressure levels inside
the station had stabilized, leading the crew and officials on the
ground to conclude that the leak had been successfully plugged.
The cosmonauts had spent some time since their April 6 arrival
at the station looking for evidence of the leak, which was first
noticed last year by the previous crew to inhabit the station. That
crew was unable to locate the source of the leak before they left the
station in late August.
Zalyotin and Kalery were performing what MirCorp described as
a "step-by-step" search of the station, methodically closing off
modules of the station and monitoring pressure levels to identify the
source of the leak. With the leak now identified and fixed, those
sealed-off modules, including Kvant 2 and Kristall, are being
reopened.
While Russian and MirCorp officials said the air leak was
never a threat to the safety of the crew, fixing the leak was one of
the top priorities of the crew, in part as a way to demonstrate that
Mir is in operational condition and suitable for various commercial
uses that MirCorp hopes to attract customers for.
The leak fix is just one of a number of maintenance and
scientific tasks the two cosmonauts have been performing on the
station this month. While the cosmonauts have been every busy, they
did take a little time Friday to celebrate Zalyotin's 38th birthday.
Ariane Launches Communications Satellite
An Ariane 4 booster successfully launched an American
communications satellite late Tuesday in what may be the last launch
for the European company for several months.
The Ariane 42L, the version of the Ariane 4 with two liquid-
propellant strap-on boosters, lifted off on schedule at 8:29 pm EDT
Tuesday (0029 UT Wednesday) from Kourou, French Guiana. It
successfully placed into a geosynchronous transfer orbit the Galaxy 4R
communications satellite for the American company PanAmSat.
From its location in geosynchronous orbit at 99 degrees west
longitude, Galaxy 4R will provide cable television, radio, and high-
speed Internet services throughout North America, including a digital
cable service for AT&T as well as AOL Plus, an Internet access service
provided by DirectPC and America Online.
The satellite, a Hughes model HS 601 HP, is a replacement for
Galaxy 4, which failed in orbit in May 1998, disrupting broadcast and
pager service for millions in North America. The successful launch of
Galaxy 4R will allow PanAmSat to move other satellites that were
filling in for the failed satellite.
The launch was the fourth of the year for Arianespace, but
company officials cautioned that delays in the delivery of several
upcoming satellites will mean that it will be at least a couple months
before Arianespace conducts its fifth launch.
"We are waiting for the satellites, and I hope we will be
ready to resume flights by the end of June or the beginning of July,"
said Arianespace Chief Operating Officer Jacques Rossignol after the
launch. "We are totally prepared to restart as soon as possible --
and we still intend to launch a total of five Ariane 5s and seven to
eight Ariane 4s this year."
Arianespace had planned to launch a pair of communications
satellites next month on an Ariane 5, but delayed that launch when one
of the satellites, Astra 2B, would not be available while engineers
investigated a possible problem with attitude control thrusters on the
satellite.
That delay is part of a nearly industry-wide slowdown in
launches caused by the possibility of defective attitude control
thrusters made by a German company and used on a wide range of
satellites. Eutelsat has delayed the Atlas 3A launch of one of its
communications satellites while it investigates similar concerns, and
the European Space Agency has delayed the shipment of four Cluster II
space science satellites to their Kazakhstan launch site while looking
into the thrusters on those satellites.
Proton Launches European Communications Satellite
A Russian Proton booster successfully launched a European
communications satellite late Monday night, the third successful
Proton launch in as many months.
The Proton lifted off on schedule from Baikonur, Kazakhstan at
5:06 pm EDT (2106 UT) Monday. It placed into a geosynchronous orbit the
Siberia Europe Satellite (Sesat) for Paris-based Eutelsat.
Sesat, built by Russian company NPO-PM with a communications
payload provided by the French firm Alcatel, will provide broadband
communications for much of Europe and the Middle East from its
position at 36 degrees east longitude. Potential uses of Sesat range
from telemedicine to high-speed Internet access, according to
Eutelsat.
Because of the participation of a Russian company in the
construction of Sesat, Monday's launch is technically a domestic
Russian launch that falls under the oversight of the Russian Aviation
and Space Agency. Typically, commercial satellite launches are
handled by International Launch Services, the American-Russian joint
venture that markets the Proton and Atlas boosters to commercial
customers.
The launch also provides a boost in confidence in the Proton
itself, which now has three consecutive successful launches since an
October 1999 launch failure. The reliability of the Proton had been
called into question in the wake of the October failure as well as a
similar one in July. Both failures were eventually traced to quality
control problems in a batch of second-stage engines built by a
contractor several years ago.
At least a couple more Proton launches are expected before the
early July launch of the Zvezda service module for the International
Space Station, one of the most important Proton launches in recent
years.
Delta Launch Scrubbed Again
The Delta 2 launch of an Air Force Global Positioning System
(GPS) satellite was postponed for the second consecutive night on
Saturday, this time because of a potential problem with the
spacecraft.
The Boeing Delta 2 was scheduled to lift off from Pad 17A at
the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, and place into orbit
the Navstar GPS IIR-4 spacecraft.
However, late Saturday afternoon the Air Force scrubbed the
launch attempt after Lockheed Martin, builders of the satellite,
reported an unspecified "potential issue" with another satellite under
construction.
A statement issued by Boeing said that while there is no known
problem with the GPS satellite, "the analysis is a precautionary
measure to ensure that all systems are functioning at their full level
of performance." Lockheed Martin officials had no immediate comment
on the problem.
The launch was originally scheduled for Friday night, but
delayed when a problem developed with ground support equipment that
provides power to the Navstar GPS IIR-4 spacecraft. That problem has
since been corrected.
The launch has yet to be rescheduled, but will almost
certainly be delayed for several days, since the Eastern Range is now
reserved for Monday afternoon's scheduled launch of the shuttle
Atlantis. If the shuttle launches on schedule the earliest new launch
date would likely be Wednesday, although additional delays and
conflicts with other planned launches could push the launch back into
May.
The GPS IIR-4 spacecraft will serve as a replacement to the
GPS II-1 spacecraft currently in orbit that failed in March and was
decommissioned earlier this month. The satellite is the fourth in a
planned series of 21 Block IIR replacement satellites; the third was
launched on a Delta 2 last October.
The launch will also be the third Delta 2 launch of the year,
after the February 8 launch of four Globalstar satellites from Cape
Canaveral and the March 25 launch of NASA's IMAGE space science
spacecraft from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California.
U.S. and Brazil Sign Launch Agreement
The United States and Brazil signed an agreement last week
that will permit American companies to launch spacecraft from a
coveted Brazilian launch site.
The Technical Safeguards Agreement, signed Tuesday in Brazil,
permits American launch vehicles and spacecraft to use the Alcantara
Launch Center in Brazil. The agreement was required by the Missile
Technology Control Regime so that American technology in its rockets
and spacecraft would not fall into Brazilian hands for potential
military uses.
While no American company has openly expressed an interest in
launching from Alcantara, Anthony Harrington, American ambassador to
Brazil, said in remarks at the signing ceremony that there was
considerable interest in the site.
"Having talked to several U.S. companies in the past week, I
know there is strong interest in making use of the important facility
at Alcantara," Harrington said. "The satellite-launch industry sees
real benefits in the launch center's location, so close to the
equator, and in the infrastructure and accessibility by air and sea."
To date Alcantara has only been used for a pair of launches of
Brazil's natively-developed VLS-1 booster. Both of those launch
attempts, in November 1997 and last December, failed when problems
with the booster developed shortly after liftoff.
While the existing launch infrastructure at Alcantara is
limited, there has been some interest in the facility, in large part
because it is located only 2.3 degrees south of the Equator and thus
rockets launched from there are able to take maximum advantage of the
Earth's rotation.
Late last year Brazil and Ukraine signed an agreement to allow
Ukrainian-built Tsyklon boosters to launch from Alcantara. Last week
Italy and the Ukraine signed an agreement to permit Italian firms to
help modernize the Tsyklon for use at Alcantara.
Brazilian authorities hope to conduct as many as 14 launches a
year from Alcantara, employing up to 2,500 people directly and
indirectly and contributing tens of millions of dollars to the local
economy.
Commercial Practices May Be Misapplied to Aerospace
Management philosophies that sought to reduce costs may have
been fundamentally misapplied to the aerospace business, resulting in
the recent series of launch vehicle and spacecraft mishaps, the chairs
of two review panels said last week.
Speaking Thursday at the 7th Annual Dolittle Conference in
Cambridge, Mass., Sheila Widnall and Thomas Young said that the unique
and unforgiving conditions of the launch vehicle business make the
application of acquisition reform and the philosophy of "faster,
better, cheaper" particularly difficult.
Calling the emphasis on cost by aerospace companies
"worrisome", Young, a former Lockheed Martin executive who chaired
that company's panel into recent launch failures, said that "too much
emphasis on cost will compromise mission success."
Young, who also recently chaired an independent panel
chartered by NASA to investigate its recent Mars mission failures,
drew some parallels between those failed missions and the recent spate
of launch vehicle failures. In both cases, he said, you deal with
systems that require the flawless performance of thousands of
components without a single problem; a "one strike and you're out
business."
Young said that the introduction in the last decade of
commercial practices, federal acquisition reform, and the "faster
better cheaper" philosophy have contributed to the recent problems.
"They're all good," Young said of the changes, but said that real
question was how to apply them in the launch vehicle business.
Young's comments were echoed by Widnall, an MIT professor and
former Secretary of the Air Force who chaired a Boeing panel last year
that looked into launch vehicle failures. She suggested that the
"faster better cheaper" phrase be rearranged into "better faster
cheaper" to better reflect the priority of those attributes.
"Quality must be the company's highest priority," she said.
"Quality is an active verb; it is not a noun."
Young agreed, and added that by improving quality, costs can
still be cut by doing the job right the first time, reducing the
number of mistakes that must be corrected at additional cost. "You
can't improve quality by cutting costs," he said, "but you can improve
cost by improving quality."
Blindly applying commercial practices to the launch vehicle
business doesn't work, Young said, saying that instead an "intelligent
hybrid" between the old and new ways of doing business is needed that
calls upon the experience of senior managers and engineers -- the lack
of which was a "contributing problem" in recent failures.
Faster better cheaper, he concluded, should mean "doing
everything the big boys do, but doing it in moderation."
General: U.S. Military Doesn't Need Separate Space Force
An Air Force general said last week that the best way for the
United States to handle the growing importance of space operations in
the 21st century is not through the creation of a separate "Space
Force".
Instead, said Lt. General Roger DeKok, Deputy Chief of Staff
for Plans and Programs for the U.S. Air Force, the Air Force should
evolve into an "Aerospace Force" that can better integrate air and
space vehicles to meet the nation's defense needs.
A defense authorization bill signed into law last October
included a provision for Congress to appoint a commission to look into
whether the United States should split off the space-related portions
of the Air Force and other military branches into a separate space
force.
While some members of congress, such as Sen. Bob Smith (R-NH),
have called for the formation of a Space Force, Gen DeKok told
attendees of the 7th Annual Dolittle Conference in Cambridge, Mass.
Thursday that a separate force isn't necessary.
"I submit that this [space] force already exists, and it is
called the U.S. Air Force," said DeKok, who has been nominated by the
President to become the new vice commander of the Air Force Space
Command.
DeKok said that the Air Force was working on a plan that calls
for a transition into a "full-spectrum Aerospace Force" that would
integrate both air- and space-based military assets into a single,
unified force. "We will treat the separate physical domains of air
and space as one seamless, continuous operations medium," said DeKok.
The Air Force will also move to utilize commercial
communications and other space systems more than they have in the
past, although recent commercial failures like Iridium will have them
move with some caution, especially when they could upset the
marketplace. "The Defense Department shouldn't choose winners and
losers in the marketplace," DeKok said.
DeKok said that the Air Force leadership is "100 percent
committed" to this air and space integration. A paper outlining this
vision of an Aerospace Force will be released within the next several
weeks, he said.
At the same time, Congress is working to complete the
commission that will look into a separate space force. Florida Today
reported Monday that most members of the 13-person panel have already
been selected, with the rest to be named shortly. The commission is
expected to work over the next several months and report on their
findings by the end of the year.
Terra Spacecraft "Open for Business"
Four months after its launch, NASA's Terra Earth-observing
spacecraft is now officially "open for business" with the release of a
set of images, project scientists announced Wednesday.
Project officials released a set of images of various regions
of the Earth, focusing on North America and India, taken by various
instruments on Terra. The images were not the first taken by Terra --
a set of "first light" images were released in March -- but represent
the completion of an on-orbit checkout of the instruments and other
spacecraft systems.
Terra had suffered a number of glitches since its mid-December
launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base, including a thruster problem
that delayed the transfer of the spacecraft to its final Sun-
synchronous orbit as well as earlier problems with the high-gain
antenna and software glitches.
However, with those problems behind the project, Terra now
enters an operational mode, collecting up to 6 terabytes of data a
month with its five instruments: the Moderate-resolution, Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer
(MISR), Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES), Advanced
Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER), and the
Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT).
"Terra is measuring and documenting the Earth's vital signs,
many of them for the first time," said Terra project scientist Yoram
Kaufman. "The data will help us understand our planet, aid in our
distinguishing between natural and human-induced changes, and show us
how the Earth's climate affects the quality of our lives."
Terra, originally known as EOS AM-1, is the flagship of NASA's
Earth Observing System (EOS) and the first in a series of ten
spacecraft to be launched in the next decade to study the Earth and
its environment from orbit. The next in the EOS series of spacecraft,
Aqua (formerly known as EOS PM), is scheduled for launch late this
year.
Astronomers Unveil Prototype of New SETI Telescope
Astronomers officially unveiled Wednesday a small-scale
prototype of a proposed giant radio telescope that will be dedicated
to the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI).
The Rapid Prototype Array, located at a University of
California tree preserve in Lafayette, 20 km (12 mi.) from the main
Berkeley campus, is a set of seven antennas, each 3.6 meters (11.8
feet) in diameter -- the size of a backyard satellite television dish
-- linked together to form a small array.
The Rapid Prototype Array is a smaller version of the One
Hectare Array (1HT), a proposed instrument that would consist of
hundreds or even thousands of such small dishes with a total
collecting area of one hectare (2.5 acres). That combined collecting
area would make the 1HT one of the most powerful radio telescopes ever
built.
What makes the 1HT of particular interest is that its primary
purpose will be to search for signals that may have been transmitted
by extraterrestrial intelligences elsewhere in the galaxy or universe.
Current SETI searches either rely on a limited amount of dedicated
time on existing radio telescopes or "piggyback" onto other research
efforts.
"This prototype launches the next generation of SETI research
in a bold way," said Jill Tarter, director of SETI research at the
SETI Institute, the private organization developing the 1HI in
conjunction with UC Berkeley.
While the 1HT will be primarily devoted to SETI searches,
radio astronomers will also be able to use it for what the SETI
Institute calls "more traditional research", such as the study of the
formation of stars.
Because of the various scientific benefits of the 1HT, its
unique, expandable design, and its promised low cost -- only $25
million for the full array, much less that the cost of a similarly-
sized single-dish telescope -- there is considerable interest in the
project. "The 1HT is a fundamentally new way to build radio
telescopes, and it's not an overstatement to say that the world
astronomy community is paying very close attention to this project,"
said Tarter.
The Rapid Prototype Array unveiled Wednesday will itself not
be used to conduct SETI searches. Instead, it will be used to work
out technical issues ranging from developing the signal processing
software needed to interpret the data collected by the dishes to
developing ways to deal with interference from satellites.
After those challenges are overcome a second, larger prototype
would then be built to test additional technologies. The 1HT would
then be built at Hat Creek Observatory, 470 km (290 mi.) northeast of
San Francisco, by 2005.
"This is an exciting day for SETI," said Frank Drake, who
conducted the first SETI search, "Project Ozma", 40 years ago using a
radio telescope in West Virginia. "In the years since Project Ozma,
SETI has evolved from a set of theories into a science that is
practiced by eminent astronomers throughout the world. The 1HT is the
next logical step in the advancement of that science."
SpaceViews Event Horizon
April TBD Delta 2 launch of a GPS satellite from Cape Canaveral,
Florida
April 23-28 Santa Fe High Power Laser Ablation Conference, Santa
Fe, New Mexico
April 24 Launch of shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-101 from
Kennedy Space Center, Florida at 4:15 pm EDT
(2015 UT)
April 27-29 Space Access 2000 conference, Scottsdale, AZ
May 3 Atlas 2 launch of the GOES-L weather satellite from
Cape Canaveral, Florida
May 4 Space Day
May 24-26 5th Annual ISU International Symposium: "The Space
Transportation Market: Evolution or Revolution?",
Strasbourg, France
May 25-29 International Space Development Conference, Tucson, AZ
Other News
Sea Launch Investigation Continues: Members of a failure review board
looking into last month's Sea Launch accident said last week they are
making progress into determining the cause of the failure. Continued
analysis of data appears to support earlier reports that a software
glitch in ground-support equipment left a valve open in a second-stage
pneumatic system on the Zenit 3SL, causing it to lose pressure and
eventually fail. "We continue to find agreement in our findings of
the root cause and effects of the anomaly," said Jim Maser, Sea Launch
chief engineer and chair of the review board. The review board is
expected to soon receive a separate report from Russian and Ukrainian
investigators completed last week, and hope to issue a final report in
time to permit launches to resume this summer.
Olympic Torch in Space: Shortly before it begins its long relay from
Greece, the torch for the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia
will fly aboard the shuttle this month, Olympic organizers said
Thursday. The torch is slightly smaller than the original prototype
of the torch that will be used to relay the Olympic flame from
Olympia, Greece to Sydney, and was also modified so it could be
disassembled and stored in the spacecraft. Australian-born NASA
astronaut Andy Thomas arranged for the torch to be flown on the
shuttle. "The Olympic torch is a symbol of the courage, determination
and teamwork involved in space exploration," he said.
Europa Orbiter Delay? The launch of a spacecraft to study Jupiter's
moon Europa in greater detail may be delayed for over two years, the
online publication SpaceDaily reported last week. Jay Bergstralh,
program scientist for NASA's Outer Planets Program, told the
publication that NASA was considering delaying the launch of Europa
Orbiter 26 months -- two launch windows -- from its planned late 2003
launch date. The delay would allow engineers more time to develop the
technologies needed for the mission, and would also allow NASA to
first launch Pluto-Kuiper Express, a mission based on the Europa
Orbiter design but with less dependence on advanced technologies. No
word, though, on when a final decision on the status of the mission
will be made by NASA.
Orbital Accounting: To most, accounting would seem far less difficult
than building spacecraft and rockets. That's not true, though, for
Orbital Sciences Corporation, which had to delay the release of its
1999 financial statement several weeks while working out issues with
two accounting firms. Those results were finally released last week,
and show the company lost over $120 million last year, compared to a
$56.5 million loss in 1998. The company blamed start-up costs of
satellite services and "unusual" items on the large loss, as well as a
restatement of earnings from past years that settled a long-standing
dispute about the company's finances.
Briefly: Do you think preservationism is limited to planet Earth?
Think again. Space.com reported last week on an effort by two New
Mexico researchers to have the Apollo 11 landing site declared a
National Historic Landmark to prevent future explorers from disturbing
the site. "In the future, once it's economically feasible for the
public to visit Tranquility Base, we would need to implement some type
of border that would allow the public to see the site without
intruding upon it," one of the researchers, John Versluis, said...
What's a worthy news story these days? Apparently, the AP decided it
was worth a few paragraphs to report that a Pentagon official denied
that any aliens or alien technology are used in military programs.
(Did you expect him to say yes?) The report comes on the heels of the
release of satellite images of the infamous "Area 51" base in Nevada,
which, much to the disappointment of UFO buffs worldwide, looks just
like any other military air base, with no signs of flying saucers
parked on the tarmac...
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*** Articles ***
TIROS: The First Weather Satellite
by Andrew J. LePage
For almost anyone under the age of 40, satellite pictures of
Earth's cloud cover have been a staple of television news weather
segments for almost as long as we can remember. But just four decades
ago such images and the other vital data returned by weather
satellites did not exist. During this almost forgotten era,
meteorologist had to rely on observations taken by ships at sea and
fixed weather stations scattered across the continents to track the
weather and make predictions. Tracking storms, especially those at
sea, was especially difficult because of a lack of synoptic data. A
satellite's potential for filling this data gap was recognized over
half a century ago.
The Origin of the Concept
After World War II, a host of satellite studies were started
largely because of the availability of German rocket technology. One
of the most famous of these was "Preliminary Design for an
Experimental World Circling Spaceship" performed by the Rand
Corporation under the sponsorship of the US Army Air Force. Released
on May 2, 1946, this report listed weather reconnaissance as a
possible satellite application. Five years later Rand researchers
produced another secret report entitled "Feasibility of Weather
Reconnaissance from a Satellite Vehicle" which further addressed the
attractiveness of weather satellites.
There was also growing interest in weather observations from
space in more open sources of the time. In January of 1949 USAF Major
D.L. Crowson published a paper on the use of television camera-
equipped rockets to track storms. The first public mention of weather
satellites themselves came in a 1954 paper written by H. Wexler of the
US Weather Bureau. Later in October of that year, a US Navy Aerobee
rocket took a series of photographs that gave a spectacular view of a
tropical storm over the US -- the first time such a storm had been
seen from space. Slowly the value of space-based weather observations
was becoming apparent to a large number of weather experts.
But like most other spacecraft concepts during this time,
weather satellite development languished for lack of substantive
support. While potentially useful, no one had ever launched a
satellite of any sort before. But in 1955 the first tentative steps
towards launching a satellite were taken. In March of 1955 the USAF
issued a secret directive for the development of a reconnaissance
satellite which eventually lead to the WS-117L program (see "Spy in
the Sky" in the March 1, 1999 issue of SpaceViews). On July 5, 1955
President Eisenhower publicly announced that the United States would
launch a scientific satellite as part of the American contribution to
the International Geophysical Year. Two months later the Navy
Research Laboratory's satellite proposal, later named Vanguard, was
chosen for the task (see "Vanguard: America's Response to Sputnik" in
the December 1997 issue of SpaceViews). Among the experiments
proposed for Vanguard were some that would gather data vital to the
development of an operational weather satellite.
In one experiment, Verner Soumi of the University of Wisconsin
proposed to measure the Earth's energy balance using simple
radiometers. Knowing how much of the Sun's energy the Earth and its
atmosphere reflected and how much infrared radiation it emitted is
vital to understanding weather. Another experiment also approved for
Vanguard was proposed by William G. Stroud and William Nordberg from
the US Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory (USASRDL).
They proposed to place small photocells on the exterior of the
spinning satellite. Each would scan a slightly different part of the
scene below during each rotation while the forward motion of the
satellite would then allow a series of pictures to be built up line by
line. The crude pictures from this experiment would provide data on
the brightness and appearance of the Earth and its clouds from orbit -
vital information for developing cameras for weather satellites.
While studies relating to weather satellites continued under
the sponsorship of various military and civilian laboratories, real
progress did not begin until the launch of the first Sputniks when
many space concepts received renewed interest. As with most American
space programs, work on weather satellites came under the purview of
ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) by the middle of 1958. While
all the military services and the US Weather Bureau supplied inputs
based on their own research, ARPA eventually gave responsibility for
the development of a weather satellite (now considered a high
priority) to USASRDL. They already had a satellite concept under
development that could be used as a weather satellite.
TIROS is Born
Throughout the 1950s, RCA (Radio Corporation of America)
worked closely with the Department of Defense examining a variety of
applications for television-equipped satellites including in the WS-
117L program. But after the WS-117L program opted for a photographic-
based imaging system, RCA was forced to look for a customer elsewhere.
After some convincing, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), which
was busy pushing their own satellite proposal (see "Project Orbiter:
Prelude to America's First Satellite" in the January 1998 issue of
SpaceViews), issued a contract to RCA in 1956 to study television-
based reconnaissance concepts. Shortly afterwards a second contract
was let to RCA and control of the program, called Janus, was given to
the USASRDL.
Originally Janus would be launched on a Juno I and, like the
first Explorer satellites that used the same rocket, would be rod
shaped with a total mass of no more than nine kilograms (20 pounds).
But this shape had a tendency to tumble unstably once in orbit and the
mass restrictions proved to be almost impossible to meet. In 1958 the
Juno II, with a larger 39 kilogram (85 pounds) payload capability,
became available. Now the television-equipped satellite took on a
drum-shape which would spin more stably. Once the Army redirected the
program towards developing a weather satellite to meet the ARPA
mandate, the satellite design and its payload were optimized for its
new role and christened TIROS (Television and InfraRed Observation
Satellite).
Soon thereafter the launch vehicle was switched again to the
still more capable Juno IV with a planned payload capacity of 230
kilograms (500 pounds). But ABMA cancelled the Juno IV in August of
1958 and redirected the funding to the development of the Juno V (see
"Juno V: The Early History of a Super Booster" in the September 1998
issue of SpaceViews). After careful consideration, the Thor-Able was
chosen as the new launch vehicle and the USAF took control of the
TIROS program.
But as the TIROS design rapidly neared completion, project
responsibility would change hands for one last time. Despite its
obvious military application, the TIROS program was transferred by
President Eisenhower to NASA on April 13, 1959 because of its
perceived benefits to the peaceful promotion of space. And from the
start, the new civilian space agency was committed to getting TIROS
into space.
As with all of its space science programs, NASA administration
gave responsibility of TIROS to their Goddard Space Flight Center
(GSFC). At NASA headquarters, Morris Tepper led the program and
Stroud was transferred from USASRDL to GFSC to run the project from
there. Considering the advance state of development, it was decided
that overall spacecraft design responsibility would remain with
USASRDL and RCA would continue development of the camera system at
least until the launch of the first TIROS satellite, now designated A-
1. NASA also preferred to launch TIROS on their improved Thor-Delta
(later simply called Delta) then under development. It was decided to
stay with the temperamental Thor-Able for the launch of A-1 at least,
again to keep the program on track. Afterwards a more thorough
reorganization would allow NASA to assume more direct control of the
program.
The First Missions
On July 29, 1959 assembly of the first prototype satellite, T-
1, began. All of the satellite's components were mounted on a rigid
structural base plate. When assembled, TIROS looked like a squat
cylinder 1.07 meters (42 inches) in diameter and 0.48 meters (19
inches) tall. The sides of the spacecraft actually consisted of 18
rectangular panels covered with solar cells used to recharge the
satellite's batteries. The spin stabilized TIROS would employ
magnetic torquers to change attitude by "pushing" against the Earth's
own magnetic field. The spacecraft could either be commanded directly
from the ground in real time or be programmed to make observations
automatically when out of contact with its tracking stations.
The instrument of most interest carried by TIROS was its pair
of RCA-developed television cameras looking downward from the base
plate. One camera was fitted with a wide-angle lens capable of
imaging 1.6 million square kilometers (600,000 square miles) at a time
from the nominal 740 kilometer (460 mile) orbit chosen. The second
camera had a narrower field of view with each image covering only 13,
000 square kilometers (5,000 square miles). The 500-line images could
either be readout for direct transmission to a ground station or
recorded for later transmission. The tape recorder, an early version
of which was flown into orbit on Project SCORE (see "The Talking
Atlas" in the December 1998 issue of SpaceViews), stored up to 32
images and could be downloaded to the ground in three minutes.
The first prototype of the RCA camera was connected to ground
equipment on January 15, 1959 and worked as intended. On February 17,
Vanguard 2 was launched into orbit carrying Stroud and Nordberg's
cloud imaging experiment (see "Vanguard and Its Legacy" in the
February 1, 1999 issue of SpaceViews). Although the satellite
precessed uncontrollably once in orbit making it impossible to
assemble pictures, this raw data plus photographs returned by other
rockets did provide enough information to confirm the TIROS camera's
specifications. The other set of instruments carried by TIROS were a
trio of radiometers to measure the Earth's emissions in the infrared.
Among these was a one built by Verner Soumi and his team. While his
original instrument was a victim of a Vanguard launch failure, he did
fly a similar one later on Explorer 7 launched on October 13, 1959
(see "The Early Explorers" in the August 8, 1999 issue of SpaceViews).
The second TIROS prototype, T-2 was completed on September 10,
1959 and performed satisfactorily during a demonstration 15 days
later. Work then started on the first flight model, D-1, which would
only carry television cameras. D-1 would not have the radiometer
suite or the magnetic torquers to keep the mission simple and the
schedule on track. The first TIROS could complete its mission in the
attitude it assumed after an early morning launch. In November
preparations for launch at Cape Canaveral began. While there were a
number of problems found during testing that needed correction, final
testing of D-1 was completed on February 28, 1960 and the satellite
was shipped to the Cape a week later.
Finally on April 1, 1960 the 119 kilogram (263 pound) TIROS 1
was successfully placed into a 690 by 750 kilometer (430 by 466 mile)
orbit inclined 48.4 degrees to the equator by the last Thor-Able to
fly. On its first day in orbit, TIROS 1 started returning pictures -
dozens followed by hundreds then thousands as the mission progressed.
The only major malfunction following launch was in the control system
for the narrow angle camera. But after over a month in orbit, it
began operating on its own.
Nine days after launch, TIROS 1 discovered its first cyclone
north of New Zealand. The first samples of the ensuing flood of
findings were presented to an eager audience later that month at a
combined meeting of the American Meteorological Society and the
American Geophysical Union in Washington, DC. TIROS 1 remained active
until June 15 when a power failure knocked out the cameras. During
its 77 day useful lifetime, TIROS 1 took a total of 22,952 pictures
which meteorologists eagerly waded through to gain new insights into
Earth's weather.
With the value of weather satellites proven, the 126 kilogram
(278 pound) TIROS 2 was launched on November 23, 1960 on the third
flight of the new Delta. Unlike its predecessor, TIROS 2 carried a
full complement of instruments and equipment. Although the picture
quality was disappointing, it returned over 36,000 images over the
next 76 days. Next came TIROS 3 on July 12, 1961 which was launched
in time to watch for tropical storms. After this, NASA would almost
continuously monitor the weather from orbit with a succession of
weather satellites that continues to this day.
Bibliography
John Jakes, Tiros: Weather Eye in Space, Julian Messner (New York),
1966
W.G. Stroud and W. Nordberg, "Meteorological Measurements from a
Satellite Vehicle", in Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites, edited by
James A. Van Allen, University of Michigan Press (Ann Arbor), pp. 119-
132, 1956
William Widger Jr., Meteorological Satellites, Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston, Inc. (New York), 1966
Author
Drew LePage is a physicist and freelance writer specializing in
astronomy and the history of spaceflight. He can now be reached at
prometheus1@mediaone.net.
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