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发信人: bage (网事如疯·春心萌动), 信区: AerospaceScience
标 题: SpaceViews -- 2000 April 10(转载)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2000年12月23日18:01:51 星期六), 转信
【 以下文字转载自 bage 的信箱 】
【 原文由 hitsma@0451.com 所发表 】
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S P A C E V I E W S
Issue 2000.15
2000 April 10
http://www.spaceviews.com/2000/0410/
*** News ***
Cosmonauts Reoccupy Mir Space Station
Mir's New Challenge: Finding Customers
Rudder Problem Could Delay Shuttle Launch
Ejected Protoplanet Most Likely a Star
ESA Delays Shipment of Cluster Satellites
JPL Names Head of Mars Program Office
Ulysses Data Reveals Extremely Long Comet Tail
Analysts Count 2,147 Satellites to Launch This Decade
Poll Finds Americans Continue to Support NASA
SETI: Still Searching after 40 Years
SpaceViews Event Horizon
Other News
*** Articles ***
NEOs, Planetary Defense and Government:
A View from the Pentagon
*** News ***
Cosmonauts Reoccupy Mir Space Station
A Soyuz spacecraft carrying two cosmonauts successfully docked
with the Russian space station Mir early Thursday, April 6, opening a
new, commercial era for the orbiting facility.
MirCorp, the Western company seeking to commercialize the
station, used the occasion to announce a new round of funding for the
company and a new mission to the station to launch later this year.
The Soyuz-TM30 spacecraft, with cosmonauts Sergei Zalyotin and
Alexander Kalery on board, docked with Mir at approximately 2:30 am
EDT (0630 UT) Thursday, two days after lifting off from Baikonur,
Kazakhstan. The docking was scheduled to be entirely automatic, but
flight controllers had the cosmonauts take over for final few meters
after they became concerned that the "Kurs" automated docking system
could fail.
Zalyotin and Kalery were scheduled to board the station about
an hour and a half later. During a short communications session with
ground controllers a few hours after docking, they reported that
conditions on bard the station were livable, with sufficient air
pressure and warm temperatures.
The cosmonauts are scheduled to spend at least 45 days on Mir
restoring the station, which had been uninhabited since last August.
High on their list of activities will be locating the source of a
small but persistent air leak first noticed on the station shortly
before the last crew left.
The successful docking with and occupation of Mir is a big
boost for MirCorp, the company seeking to commercialize the station.
MirCorp used the docking to announce a second round of funding from
its investors, venture capital firm Gold & Appel and Internet and
telecommunications entrepreneur Chirinjeev Kathuria, to fund a second
commercial mission to Mir this fall.
"People have been talking about space exploration,
commercialization and colonization for 40 years -- and MirCorp has
been able to accomplish this in under three months since its creation,
" Kathuria said in a statement. "As a result, the current group of
investors has now stepped up with additional capital to ensure that
Mir stays in orbit and the renovation begins for true commercial
activity."
The exact amount of funding provided by investors was not
released, but MirCorp president Jeffrey Manber described it as
"substantial." "This commitment will allow the new manned mission
later this year," he said.
MirCorp has been working to identify potential commercial uses
of the station and customers for it, a process that has been hindered
to some degree by the station's status and history of past problems --
a situation MirCorp hopes the new mission will turn around.
"Until now, the perception had been that Mir was a dying space
station, ready to reenter the atmosphere and burn up," said MirCorp
senior vice president Andrew Eddy. "With today's docking the message
is clear: We're open for business."
Mir's New Challenge: Finding Customers
With the Russian Mir station successfully reoccupied, the
focus of attention now turns from whether the station can be saved to
whether the company that plans to lease it can find any customers.
Plans by Netherlands-based MirCorp to commercialize Mir passed
an important hurdle this week when cosmonauts Sergei Zalyotin and
Alexander Kalery successfully docked with and boarded the station.
They reported that conditions on the station were at least
considerably better than what many had feared after eight months of
dormancy.
"Mir is in good shape, and we see no reason why its useful
life should not been extended," Zalyotin said.
Proving that the station is in livable, workable condition was
a key step towards commercializing the station, given at least the
impression by many from past problems that the station was long past
its prime.
"Until the lights have been turned on in Mir and the station
is actually manned, it is understandable that people have been less
than convinced about the station's commercial possibilities," said
Andrew Eddy, MirCorp's senior vice president for business development.
With MirCorp having proved -- for now -- that the station is
habitable, they must now show they can make money leasing the station
to various commercial users. Much of their publicly-discussed
strategy for Mir revolves around a poorly-understood plan to make the
station into an "Internet portal", a concept discussed by company
officials and investors alike.
Chirinjeev Kathuria, one of the investors in MirCorp and a
telecommunications and Internet entrepreneur, said that the portal
would carry "data content" as well as live images of the Earth from
space.
A serious drawback to this plan, though, is the lack of
continuous, high-speed communications between Mir and the Earth at the
present time, which would make it difficult to access data on the
station's "portal." Moreover, it's unclear what unique content Mir
could provide that would not be freely accessible elsewhere.
MirCorp investors may be using the term, though, as a way to
justify a very high valuation for the station, as is the case for
existing Internet portal sites like Yahoo and Excite. "We have built
successful Internet companies in Europe and Japan that have valuations
in the billions of dollars," said Kathuria, "and we feel our first
ever Internet space portal on Mir will have a high value as well."
MirCorp is not limiting itself to turning Mir into some kind
of space-based Web site. "We expect short-term revenue to come from
the positioning of Mir as a consumer product," Kathuria said. "MirCorp
anticipates business will evolve from many areas, including the
entertainment and media sector, foreign missions to the station,
aerospace research projects, satellite assembly and repair, and
industrial production."
MirCorp has also signed an agreement with the William Morris
Agency, an American talent agency that represents actors, musicians,
models, and others, to look into possibilities in the media and
entertainment sectors.
The company is gearing up for the next manned mission to Mir,
currently planned for September thanks to a new round of investment
from Kathuria and venture capital firm Gold & Appel. "We expect to be
signing a number of MirCorp affiliate agreements that will allow us to
facilitate what we call 'fast-track' access for traditional space-
sector clients," said Eddy.
Rudder Problem Could Delay Shuttle Launch
Just a day after setting April 24 as the official launch date
for the shuttle Atlantis, NASA officials said Thursday that the launch
could be delayed well into May because of a potential problem with the
shuttle's rudder.
Shuttle managers Thursday confirmed reports published late
Wednesday night by CBS News that engineers were investigating a
higher-than-normal pressure reading in a power drive unit (PDU) that
controls the combination rudder/speed brake in the orbiter's tail.
NASA officials didn't immediately know if the PDU would have
to be replaced, or if it did, whether the replacement could be done on
the launch pad where the shuttle currently sits. Such repairs have not
previously been performed on the pad.
If the shuttle needs to be rolled back to the Vehicle Assembly
Building (VAB) for repairs, or even if repairs on the pad take longer
than expected, the launch of Atlantis on mission STS-101 could be
delayed well into next month.
NASA currently has only three days reserved for the shuttle's
launch: April 24, 25, 26. After the 26th the Eastern Range at Cape
Canaveral is reserved for several unmanned launches, including the
Titan 4 launch of an early-warning satellite and the Atlas 2 launch of
a weather satellite. One or more classified operations are also
planned during this period, which stretches through at least May 10.
A decision on any shuttle launch delay is not expected for
several days, as engineers retest the PDU and evaluate the options for
repairing it on the pad versus rolling it back to the VAB.
The launch of STS-101 has already been delayed several times,
for reasons ranging from the replacement of a main engine and repairs
of an onboard antenna to an ankle injury sustained by mission
commander Jim Halsell last month.
STS-101 will spend six days docked to the Unity and Zarya
modules, performing repairs and routine maintenance to the modules,
which have been in orbit since late 1998. That work will include the
replacement of a faulty battery in the Zarya module that was noticed
by controllers last year.
The mission was originally scheduled for launch only after
Russia launched the Zvezda service module to the International Space
Station so that the station could be outfitted for its first permanent
crew. However, with the service module launch delayed until July, and
the need to perform maintenance on the two ISS modules currently in
orbit, NASA split the original STS-101 mission into two parts.
The new STS-101 mission will work on the Zarya and Unity
modules, including replacing a faulty battery in Zarya. STS-106, the
second half of the original STS-101 mission and tentatively scheduled
for launch in August, will perform the remainder of the tasks
originally scheduled for STS-101. The first ISS crew of one American
and two Russians would then be launched on a Soyuz by late this year.
If the shuttle launches on April 24 as currently scheduled, it
will return for a landing back at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida at
11:23 am EDT (1523 UT) Thursday, May 4.
Ejected Protoplanet Most Likely a Star
The discoverers of a possible young extrasolar planet being
ejected from a star system now believe the object is just a background
star, they announced last week.
Astronomer Susan Tereby of the Extrasolar Research Corporation
first reported the discovery of the potential protoplanet, dubbed TMR-
1C, in May 1998. The basis of the discovery was a Hubble Space
Telescope image which appeared to show a dim object at the end of a
long tendril extending from a binary star system 450 light-years from
Earth.
The discovery was significant at the time because it was the
first time that an extrasolar planet had been directly imaged by a
telescope. Past extrasolar planet discoveries had relied on indirect
detection techniques, such as measuring the wobble of a star caused by
gravitational perturbations from an orbiting planet.
At the time of the discovery, scientists admitted there was a
two percent chance that the object was just a background star that
happened to appear at the right place. To investigate this, Tereby
and other astronomers planned additional observations of the object.
Speculation that TMR-1C was just a background star grew last
year. Science News reported last June that a spectrum of the object
showed no signs of water vapor, which should have been visible if the
object was a young planet with a temperature no greater than 2,500
kelvins (4,000 degrees Fahrenheit).
In an article in the May issue of the Astronomical Journal,
Tereby herself reports on similar spectroscopic studies of the object,
using data from the Hubble Space Telescope. Combining those
observations with models of dust-obscured objects, she concluded that
TMR-1C must be at least 2,700 kelvins (4,400 degrees Fahrenheit) --
too warm to be a protoplanet, at least according to current models of
planetary formation.
"At this time there is no strong evidence that TMR-1C itself
is a protoplanet," she concluded in her paper. "Although the Hubble
image is striking, there is the alternate possibility that TMR-1C is
an unrelated background star, seen, by chance, projected close to the
young star system."
Tereby cautions, though, that our understanding of planetary
formation is still relatively poor. "The models are not yet reliable
at such young ages, so this test by itself is not conclusive," she
wrote. "The idea remains alive and well that there may be runaway
planets and brown dwarfs... which formed via ejection from multiple
star systems."
Last month British astronomers reported the discovery of over
a dozen large planets, each at least eight times the mass of Jupiter,
located in interplanetary space in the Orion Nebula. However, the
astronomers believe that the planets formed independently from stars,
and were not ejected from solar systems after forming around them.
ESA Delays Shipment of Cluster Satellites
The European Space Agency decided late last month to delay the
shipment of its four Cluster II spacecraft to Kazakhstan for launch
this summer while engineers investigate a possible problem with the
spacecraft's thrusters.
At a flight acceptance review for the four spacecraft, held at
the end of March in Paris, project officials reported the possibility
of a "generalized problem" with the propulsion system of the
spacecraft.
No additional details about the problem were given other than
to say the problem apparently also exists in other spacecraft built by
prime contractor Dornier Satellitensysteme, a subsidiary of
DaimlerChrysler Aerospace, that have either already been launched or
are being prepared for launch.
Based on this report ESA decided to delay the shipment of the
four satellites to Baikonur, Kazakhstan launch site until after the
investigation into the thruster problem is completed.
Each Cluster II spacecraft has a single main 400-newton (90-
lbf.) engine and eight smaller 10-newton (2.25-lbf.) thrusters. All
the thrusters use monomethyl hydrazine and mixed oxides of nitrogen
for propellant.
The timetable of the investigation, and whether it would delay
the launch of the satellites this summer, are unknown. No other
problems with the spacecraft were reported during the acceptance
review, as they expressed "full satisfaction with the status of the
four Cluster II spacecraft," according to an ESA news release.
The four Cluster II spacecraft will fly in formation in an
elliptical orbit that takes them between 25,000 and 125,000 km (15,500
and 77,400 mi.) above the Earth. In that orbit they will perform a
three-dimensional study of the interaction between the solar wind and
the Earth's magnetic field.
The four satellites are functionally identical to the original
four Cluster satellites, which were lost when the Ariane 5 booster
they were on veered out of control and was destroyed less than a
minute after launch on its maiden flight in June 1996.
This time, the Cluster II spacecraft will be launched two at a
time on the proven Soyuz booster and its new Fregat upper stage. The
Fregat successfully completed a pair of test flights in February and
March, validating the stage for use on the upcoming Cluster II
launches.
JPL Names Head of Mars Program Office
JPL has tapped a veteran engineer to be the manager of its
newly-created Mars Program Office, the laboratory announced Friday.
Firouz Naderi will become the first manager of the new office,
effective immediately. The Iranian-born engineer had previously been
the manager of NASA's Origins astronomy and astrobiology program, as
well as working as program manager for several spacecraft and flight
experiments.
As manager of the Mars Program Office, Naderi will become the
single point-of-contact between NASA Headquarters and the Mars
spacecraft missions operated at JPL. He will work in close
conjunction with Scott Hubbard, who was named to be the first Mars
Program Director at NASA Headquarters last month.
Both the JPL and the NASA Headquarters posts were created in
the wake of an independent review of NASA's Mars exploration program
that was especially critical of poor management and communication at
both locations.
One of Naderi's first tasks will be to guide the development
of a revised plan for Mars exploration. That plan, due to be released
this summer, is expected to take a slower, more caution approach to
the robotic exploration of the Red Planet than NASA's original plan,
which called for Martian rock and soil samples to be returned to Earth
by 2008.
This expected slowdown is a cause of concern for some
scientists and space activists. "The trick is to find the right
balance between more careful spacecraft development and operations on
the one hand, and on sustained discovery and progress on the other,"
said Louis Friedman, executive director of the Planetary Society.
"There certainly is a need for more caution and better
engineering," Friedman added, but warned that "recommendations which
strongly emphasize technological development could unnecessarily lead
to NASA's scaling back too much on its basic objective of scientific
exploration."
Ulysses Data Reveals Extremely Long Comet Tail
The serendipitous detection of the tail of comet Hyakutake by
the Ulysses spacecraft may mean that comet tails are up to billions of
kilometers long, far longer than once believed.
In a pair of articles published in the April 6 issue of the
journal Nature, American and European scientists report that the
Ulysses spacecraft passed though the tail of comet Hyakutake on May 1,
1996, even though the spacecraft was hundreds of millions of
kilometers from the comet.
A group of scientists from the University of Michigan and the
International Space Science Institute in Switzerland found that the
number of charged particles detected by Ulysses increased a thousand-
fold for a few hours, at the same time the solar wind became
"strangely" calm.
A separate group of British scientists, meanwhile, found that
the magnetic field lines from the Sun were altered at the same time
that the solar wind calmed and the charged-particle density
skyrocketed. Analysis by both groups led them to conclude that
Ulysses had passed through the tail of comet Hyakutake, even though
the comet was over a half-billion kilometers (310 million miles) away.
"Although the change in the magnetic field was typical of what
we would expect in a comet tail, there was no known comet in the area,
so we initially discounted the idea" recalled Geraint Jones of
Imperial College London, head of the British group.
"When we looked again at the instrument readings we were
convinced it was a comet," he said, "so we decided to look further
into space and realized that Ulysses had crossed the tail of Comet
Hyakutake, which was then far away in another part of the solar system
-- making it the longest comet tail in history!"
At the time Ulysses detected Hyakutake's tail, the comet was
approaching perihelion, the closest point in its orbit to the Sun and
inside the orbit of Mercury, the innermost planet. The comet had been
discovered just a few months earlier by Japanese amateur astronomer
Yuji Hyakutake, and was seen by millions as it passed relatively close
to Earth that March.
Spectrometers on Ulysses were able to record data on the
composition of the particles, detecting mostly carbon and oxygen with
some nitrogen and water in the tenuous tail. Scientists believe this
means it may be possible to do meaningful long-range studies of comets
from spacecraft in the future.
"It brings up a whole new way to study comets, and I think
opens up a whole new area of science," said Nathan Schwadron of the
University of Michigan. "If we can better understand their chemical
makeup, we can get a handle on what was going on in the past, and
where we've been," added Swiss scientist Johannes Geiss.
Comets like Hyakutake are thought to be primordial remnants
from the formation of the solar system, and as such, may help
astronomers understand the contents of the cloud of dust and gas which
gave birth to the solar system. Such studies could help answers
questions ranging from "What were the initial conditions for creating
our solar system?" to "Where did we come from?" believes Schwadron.
Analysts Count 2,147 Satellites to Launch This Decade
A mission model released Monday, April 3 by a consultancy firm
estimates that 2,147 satellites -- a majority of which are commercial
-- will be launched over the coming decade.
The "Worldwide Mission Model: 2000-2009" released Monday by
Virginia-based Teal Group counts 2,147 satellites that have been
proposed for launch between now and 2009, an increase of approximately
one percent over the 2,123 the same firm said last year were proposed
for launch between 1999 and 2008.
"The first time we did our model back in 1992, we counted 656
proposed payloads for the 1993-2002 timeframe," said Teal Group lead
analyst Marco Caceres. "Now, eight years later we observe that the
number of payloads has more than tripled."
More than half of the proposed spacecraft are American, and of
those, commercial spacecraft outnumber government spacecraft three to
one. Overall, 65 percent of all the satellites are commercial
communications satellites. Five companies -- Hughes Space and
Communications, Space Systems/Loral, Alcatel Space Industries,
Motorola Space and Systems Technology, and Orbital Sciences
Corporation -- are the prime contractors for fully a third of the
satellites in the model.
The mission model counts all spacecraft that have been
proposed for launch in the coming decade, without taking into account
the probability that the spacecraft will actually be built and
launched. Last year Teal Group, in addition to its mission model with
2,123 spacecraft, issued a separate forecast which predicted that 1,
447 spacecraft would actually be launched in the 2000-2009 time span.
"I think the best thing that can be said about the number
2,147 is that it is a reference point," said Caceres. "When people in
the space industry want to know how many satellites will be built and
launched during the next 10 years, they can at least say with some
degree of comfort, 'Well, it's probably going to be more than 1,000
and less than 5,000.'"
However, even the upper end of that 1,000-5,000 range is
unlikely to be met under current market conditions. "I must say that
something drastic would have to occur within the industry for us to
see anywhere near 5,000 payloads through 2009," Caceres noted. "The
only factor that could create such a market would be an exponential
drop in launch service costs, and we do not foresee this happening
anytime soon, certainly not until reusable launch vehicle companies
start to become serious players."
Poll Finds Americans Continue to Support NASA
Despite a recent spate of highly-publicized failures and other
problems, the American people continue to support NASA, according to
the results of a poll released this week.
"America's Space Poll", conducted by Shandwick World Research
for the United States Space Foundation, found that registered voters'
opinions of the space agency had actually improved over a similar poll
conducted a year earlier.
The poll found that 75 percent of American voters had a
favorable opinion of space exploration in general, compared to 65
percent last year. In addition, more than 80 percent of respondents
had a favorable opinion of NASA, more than 10 percentage points higher
than last year.
Increased support for space exploration and NASA, though, did
not automatically correspond to a desire to increase the space
agency's budget. While 43.1 percent of those polled believed NASA
should get a budget increase, compared to 32.5 percent last year, 45.5
percent said that NASA's budget level should not change.
The poll also suggested that voters are interested in the
presidential candidates' positions on space exploration. More than
half said that a candidate's position on space was important, and
nearly 60 percent said they preferred a candidate that supported the
International Space Station. The poll did not specify, though, what
fraction of voters would use space as the primary or exclusive
criterion for choosing a candidate.
The poll used a sample of 1,000 voters contacted in March,
after the two Mars mission failures and around a time a series of
reports highly critical of the space agency were released. The margin
of error in the poll was three percent.
SETI: Still Searching after 40 Years
Forty years ago Saturday, on a cold West Virginia morning, the
first search for radio signals from an extraterrestrial intelligence
got underway -- and almost immediately picked up a signal.
"At the time we were very excited," recalled Frank Drake, who
led the first effort in what is now known as the Search for
Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI). "We couldn't believe our luck."
Unfortunately for Drake, the signal he detected with a 26-
meter (86 foot) antenna at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory
(NRAO) in Green Bank, West Virginia on April 8, 1960, turned out to be
from a secret military project. "We had a big, loud, false alarm the
first day," he said.
Drake continued that initial effort, christened Project Ozma
after the princess in the L. Frank Baum's "Wizard of Oz" books, for
200 hours over the course of two months, looking for signals from two
nearby Sun-like stars, Tau Ceti and Epsilon Eridani. No signals of
alien origin were detected.
Although Project Ozma failed to discover the existence of
extraterrestrial signals, it was successful in starting a field of
study first proposed just a year earlier. In a 1959 paper, Cornell
University physicists Giuseppe Cocconi and Philip Morrison concluded
that radio waves were the best method for communicating across
interstellar distances, and thus the best way to detect other
civilizations.
Drake, then a young radio astronomer at NRAO, independently
reached a similar conclusion. "The combination of bigger telescopes
and more sensitive receivers allowed us, for the first time, to detect
radio signals from the distances of the nearest Sun-like stars of the
same strength we were then sending into space," he said.
SETI first gained wide interest in the Soviet Union in the
1960s, but by the early 1970s Americans, in particular NASA, showed a
renewed interest in the field. By 1992, after a decade of study and
several years of preparation, a NASA-funded sky survey and targeted
search of 1,000 Sun-like stars got underway.
Unfortunately, Congress cut NASA's meager funding for SETI
research just a year later, terminating the program. SETI research
then moved into the private sector, with organizations like the SETI
Institute. Using private donations rather than public funds, the SETI
Institute's Project Phoenix has revived the targeted search at radio
telescopes around the world.
Other SETI programs continue today. The SERENDIP (Search for
Extraterrestrial Radio Emissions from Nearby Developed Intelligent
Populations) project at the University of California at Berkeley uses
data collected from a receiver that "piggybacks" onto other
observations performed by the giant Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto
Rico.
SERENDIP has generated such a massive volume of data that the
project has enlisted over a million volunteers to help analyze the
data through the SETI@home project. Through SETI@home, volunteers run
a screensaver on their home or office computer that processes chunks
of data from SERENDIP when the computer would otherwise be idle.
SETI researchers, who have to borrow time on other telescopes,
are looking into building their own radio telescope. The One Hectare
Telescope (1HT) would consist of several hundred small dishes --
similar to those already commercially produced to receive satellite
television signals -- spread out over one hectare (2.5 acres) of land.
Combined the 1HT will have the collecting area greater than a single
100-meter (330-foot) antenna.
Amateurs have also become involved in the SETI search through
organizations such as the SETI League, which has helped people start
their own SETI search efforts using small antennas worldwide. The
SETI League also announced plans late last year to develop their own
radio antenna array, similar to the 1HT but on a smaller scale.
While the original Cocconi and Morrison article concluded that
radio waves were the best way to look for extraterrestrial signals,
some SETI researchers are taking a new look at searches for visible
light signals, a field known as optical SETI. Originally supported on
only a small scale by lone researchers, like Stuart Kingsley of the
Columbus Optical SETI Observatory, optical SETI projects are now being
pursued by the University of California Berkeley as well as Harvard
University and the Smithsonian Observatory, supported in part by the
Planetary Society.
While this multitude of new approaches are far more sensitive
than Project Ozma, that first search for evidence that we are not
alone in the universe was still important, Drake believes.
"Our equipment today is 100 trillion times more powerful than
the Ozma equipment," said Drake. "Even so, Ozma wasn't a waste -- it
had a real chance to succeed, even with the technology of the time.
And in science you have to advance by climbing the ladder one step at
a time."
SpaceViews Event Horizon
April 17 Proton launch of the SESAT communications satellite
from Baikonur, Kazakhstan
April 18 Ariane 4 launch of the Galaxy 4R communications
satellite from Kourou, French Guiana
April 21 Delta 2 launch of a GPS satellite from Cape Canaveral,
Florida
April 23-28 Santa Fe High Power Laser Ablation Conference, Santa
Fe, New Meixco
April 24 Launch of shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-101 from
Kennedy Space Center, Florida at 4:15 pm EDT
(2015 UT)
April 27-29 Space Access 2000 conference, Scottsdale, AZ
Other News
NEAR Moves Closer to Eros: NASA's NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft adjusted
its orbit around the asteroid Eros late Saturday, April 1, bringing it
closer to the near-Earth asteroid. NEAR Shoemaker fired its main
thruster for 36 seconds shortly after 9 pm EST Saturday night (0200 UT
April 2), moving the spacecraft from a circular orbit 205 km (127 mi.)
around Eros to an elliptical one that varies between 100 and 200 km
(62 and 124 mi.) above the asteroid. A similar maneuver on April 11
will put the spacecraft into a circular orbit 100 km (62 mi.) above
Eros, where it will remain for several weeks before moving even closer
to the asteroid. From the 100-km orbit scientists hope to get even
higher-resolution images of the asteroid, including better views of
the ridges, craters, and grooves that have been seen in previous
images.
ACRIMSAT Begins Work: NASA's ACRIMSAT spacecraft began observations
of the Sun April 3 after engineers resolved a problem with the
spacecraft's pointing system. The Active Cavity Irradiance Monitor
Satellite (ACRIMSAT) was launched last December on a Taurus rocket
from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. However, problems with
the spacecraft kept it from accurately pointing at the Sun until
updated software was uploaded to the spacecraft. ACRIMSAT's five-year
mission will be to accurately measure the energy output of the Sun,
known as the total solar irradiance, or TSI. While once thought to be
constant, previous spacecraft measurements of TSI have revealed a
small variability, of no more than 0.1 percent, that could none the
less be a major influence on the Earth's climate.
Pegasus Turns 10: The Pegasus rocket, a small air-launched booster
that helped turned Orbital Sciences Corporation into one of the
leading American aerospace firms, marked the tenth anniversary of its
first launch Wednesday, April 5. Since the original Pegasus was
dropped from the wing of a B-52 on April 5, 1990, placing a small
science satellite into orbit, the Pegasus and the heavier-lift Pegasus
XL have performed 27 other launches, placing a total of 69 satellites
into orbit. An additional 12 Pegasus launches of 27 spacecraft are
planned for the next two years.
Dining on Mars: Cornell University researchers recently completed an
experiment where 16 volunteers dined exclusively on a menu of food
items designed to be grown and prepared on long-duration space
missions, such as future human missions to Mars. Because of the
limitations on time and resources on such missions, the food had to
meet a set of stringent requirements: meat- and dairy-free, low
amounts of sodium and iron, and fast preparation time. The result was
a menu of items based largely on wheat, rice, soybeans, and other
vegetables, all of which could be grown hyroponically either on a
spacecraft or a planetary surface. The volunteers involved in the
taste test gave the Martian menu a thumbs-up: "I thought the food was
delicious and I'm trying to make my diet more like theirs," said one.
Delta 3 Delay: Boeing's Delta 3 booster, which has failed in each of
its first two launches, suffered another setback when a planned late
May launch of an ICO communications satellite was delayed until
October. Boeing is now debating whether to fly a Delta 3 this summer
even without a paying payload, Spaceflight Now reported April 7. The
Delta 3, with a heavier payload capacity than the workhorse Delta 2,
is seen as largely a stopgap for Boeing until the Delta 4 family of
heavy-lift boosters becomes available in the next few years.
Briefly: Gravity Probe-B, a NASA-Stanford University mission to test
Einstein's theory of general relativity, faces up to $70 million in
additional costs and six months of delays, Astronomy Now reported
April 4. The mission, whose development can be traced back to the
early 1960s, is currently planned for launch in September 2001 but
could be delayed. Lengthy delays and the costs associated with them
could force cuts in other NASA science missions, such as a proposed
Europa Orbiter mission... A funding bill that would have allowed NASA
to hire new workers is being held up in Congress, the Huntsville Times
reported April 5. A $13-billion emergency spending bill includes $75
million in NASA money, including $20 million each for shuttle upgrades
and hiring new workers. However, the Senate has delayed consideration
of the bill indefinitely, and may not add the funds until the fiscal
year 2001 budget is debated in September. NASa deputy associate
administrator Dan Mulville said that without the funds, upgrades and
hiring plans would have to be postponed.
*** Articles ***
NEOs, Planetary Defense and Government:
A View from the Pentagon
by Brigadier General S. Pete Worden
[Editor's Note: the following essay was originally published in
February on the Cambridge Conference Network, a scholarly electronic
network devoted to discussions of Near-Earth Objects and their impact
hazard. The essay is republished here with the kind permission of the
author.]
I'll begin my short essay with a disclaimer. The US Department
of Defense (DoD) has no official view on the Near-Earth Object (NEO)
hazard. We have agreed to assist the overall United States effort led
by NASA with technology and observational support. Official
disclaimers out of the way, I'll provide my personal views in the
remainder of the essay.
For those readers who don't know me, I'm a US Air Force
officer with a background as a research astronomer. Although I began
as a solar physicist my current research interests--in the few moments
I have time to do research--are focused on NEOs and meteors. Most of
my recent work for the Air Force has been in developing options to
perform selected national security missions from and through space. In
the past decade I was responsible for much of the US DoD work to
develop small satellites, microsatellites and reusable satellite
launchers. The 1994 Clementine mission to the moon (originally
intended to include an asteroid flyby) was one of the my programs.
Small is Dangerous
I will assume that most readers share in the view that NEOs
have and will continue to play a central role in the evolution of life
on this planet. I'll also assume that we more or less agree that we
face a continuing threat from these objects. Most analyses focus on
the big threats--objects which can threaten life globally and have the
potential to destroy or seriously damage our species. I for one
believe we should pay more attention to the "Tunguska-class" objects--
100 meter or so objects which can strike up to several times per
century with the destructiveness of a nuclear weapon.
NEO discussions in the United States have, as I believe they
have everywhere, suffered from the fact that catastrophic NEO impacts
are so rare and hence so unlikely to occur in our lifetimes. Whereas
people may pay good money to see a movie thriller about asteroid
strikes or read with great interest of the demise of the dinosaurs, a
once-every-few-tens-of-millions-of-years possibility is not real to
most people. Decision makers simply are unwilling to spend scarce
resources on such an unlikely catastrophe--however terrible it may be
or even if it is inevitable.
Conversely, I can show people evidence of real strikes
inflicting local and regional damage less than a century ago. Even
more compelling are the frequent kiloton-level detonations our early
warning satellites see in the earth's atmosphere. These are threats
the public and its leaders will take seriously. These are threats we
can understand. And these are even threats we could mitigate, if
required, without recourse to nuclear technology.
Many of my colleagues in the US national security community
have advocated a proactive role for our community. They would have us
build and demonstrate a NEO defense system--perhaps based on nuclear
weapons. This is premature. What we need now is a full
characterization of first the phenomenon and then the threat which it
might entail. We need to know how many objects there are, where they
are and when any closely approach the Earth. And we need to know the
composition and structure of all classes of NEOs. This is where the US
national security establishment can play an important role.
Tracking NEOs
Within the United States space community there is a growing
concern over "space situational awareness." We are beginning to
understand that it is essential to identify and track virtually
everything in earth orbit. Some of these objects, down to a few
centimeters in size, present a potential threat to commercial and
civil space operations such as the International Space Station.
Commercial space operations exceeded government space operations for
the first time in the last few years. We have begun the era of "global
utilities" such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) in which our
ways of life are becoming critically dependent on space systems. All
of these demand the ability to search essentially all of space near
the earth about once every few hours and track up to 300,000 objects.
The US Department of Defense has a network of sensors that
perform this function but in a limited capacity compared to what is
desired. We plan on upgrading the system over the next decade or so--
including space-based sensors--to provide comprehensive search,
detection and tracking of space objects. The LINEAR system which has
been so successful over the past year in detecting NEOs is a prototype
of our next generation ground-based optical system. With relatively
simple modifications to operations, our future space surveillance
system could produce a comprehensive catalog of NEOs at little or no
expense to the scientific community.
If the international community had to duplicate this network
of sensors, it would cost hundreds of millions of dollars, if not
more. Simple economics argue that this is a portion of the NEO
problem that should be urged upon and given to the US Military. For
this reason I believe the growing community of experts on the NEO
threat should not direct their efforts to building and funding more
ground-based telescopes. Although I must caveat that not everyone in
the DoD is as eager as am I to take on the NEO task!
Microsatellite NEO Missions
Enthusiasm grows for the next generation satellite, the so-
called "microsatellite." These are 100 kilogram-class satellites
costing about US$5-10M to build and an equivalent amount to launch.
Leading the world in the development of these microsatellites are a
number of European groups. Their rapid progress has been enabled by
the capacity of the Ariane 4 and 5 launchers to carry as auxiliary
payloads up to eight microsatellites into a GEO transfer orbit at a
cost of about $1 million per satellite. NASA, US academic institutions
and US aerospace companies have begun efforts to develop
microsatellites for space science and planetary exploration missions.
Similarly, the DoD is beginning the development of similar
small size microsatellites for servicing and re-fueling larger mission
satellites. These microsatellites should allow for low-cost missions
to a wide range of NEOs--including missions to fully characterize
their structure and possibly bring back samples to Earth.
Microsatellite missions can also assist in the surveillance and
cataloguing of NEOs as there is some doubt that sensors based on the
Earth or in Earth orbit can detect all of the potentially threatening
objects. Microsatellites internal to the Earth's orbit--perhaps in a
Venus-type orbit--could provide a low-cost solution. This is
potentially another task for low-cost microsatellites. The NEO
research community will have access to both low-cost spacecraft and
low-cost launch. In addition to Ariane, the United States Air Force is
putting a similar auxiliary microsatellite adapter on our new EELV
(Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle) launch systems.
What then should we do? What role should the US Government,
and specifically the US DoD play in what everyone agrees is an
international concern? I believe we in the US DoD can and should agree
to modify our space surveillance systems to identify and track all
potentially threatening NEOs--probably down to about the 100 meter
class. In parallel, in situ studies of NEOs using low-cost
microsatellite missions should begin immediately. These missions can
and should involve NASA, ESA, other European space agencies as well as
the US DoD. These missions can use new technology to rendezvous,
inspect, sample, and even impact NEOs to study their composition and
structure. With an estimated cost of about $10-20M per mission,
including data reduction and launch, this is an affordable program.
Here is where I would focus the growth of official interest in NEOs as
evidenced by the recent UK decision to stand up a formal program.
And finally, I would propose focusing on the very small end of
NEOs--100 meters diameter or less. At any given time there are
probably tens of objects 10 meters or larger in cislunar space. These
are easily accessible to the low-cost microsatellite mission.
Is The Best Defense A Good Reconnaissance?
Should we worry now about mitigating the NEO hazard? I would
say no, until a bona fide threat emerges. This will avoid much of the
political consternation that has arisen in the past from nuclear
weapon experts advocating weapons retention and even testing in space.
After all, we can't reliably divert an NEO until we know much more
about its structure. This we'll get from a decade of dedicated
microsatellite missions. Some of these missions may even have as a
side experiment moving very small (10-50 meter class) NEOs by
impacting them. This could give us much of the necessary experience
should a true threat emerge in the near future.
Another benefit of a focused international NEO space mission
suite is public awareness and enthusiasm. From a scientific
standpoint, these are primordial objects--the stuff of which we were
made. People throughout the world, as well as the entire scientific
community, will truly embrace such an exciting endeavor. Moreover,
space visionaries often look to the NEOs as the raw material of
eventual space industrialization. We originally chose the title
"Clementine" for the 1994 lunar and NEO probe launched by the DoD for
this purpose. An old American song about a frontier miner's daughter,
Clementine, was the origin of the mission's name. We hoped to evoke
not only the spirit of the frontier but also to leverage the appeal
that valuable lunar and asteroid mineral resources might have.
In summary, I believe we have an opportunity to harness public
interest, government attention and existing expertise on the NEO
problem. An objective program should have two complementary parts.
First, to detect and to catalog virtually all threatening objects.
This can be considerably easier and cheaper if the US DoD can be
persuaded to adopt it as part of its current space surveillance
mission. Second, we should mount a modest, low-cost program to fully
characterize the composition and structure of all classes of NEOs. The
latter can and should be an international effort involving space
agencies around the world. When, and not until, we find a likely
threat is the time to work hard on mitigation.
Brigadier General S. Pete Worden is Deputy Director for Command and
Control for the United States Air Force at the Pentagon.
========
This has been the April 10, 2000, issue of SpaceViews.
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