Biology 版 (精华区)
发信人: cameran (竹晨), 信区: Biology
标 题: The Incredible Shrinking Laboratory Microchips
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年07月29日13:36:58 星期天), 站内信件
The Incredible Shrinking Laboratory Microchips
may revolutionize chemistry as they did computers
By CORINNA WU
Once, computers were monolithic machines that churned out just a few calcula
tions per minute. Since then, microchips have put a much faster computer on
nearly every desktop.
Dozens of companies are hoping that similar chips can do for chemistry labor
atories what they have done for computers. Using the techniques of the semic
onductor industry, researchers are etching microscopic labs onto the surface
s of chips made of glass, plastic, and silicon.
Instead of shuttling electrons back and forth as chips do in computers, the
chemistry chips move minuscule amounts of fluid -- volumes of millionths or
even trillionths of a liter -- through labyrinths of tiny channels and chamb
ers equipped with pumps, valves, and filters. A computer choreographs the co
mplex interaction of these components.
These chips could allow scientists to conduct biochemical analyses with grea
ter accuracy than is now possible and in a fraction of the time. Instead of
dealing with beakers, test tubes, and Bunsen burners, scientists could simpl
y inject a small sample into a machine containing a microchip and wait a few
minutes for the results to appear on a computer screen.
Several chemistry chip manufacturers are making substantial progress toward
this goal. Pharmaceutical companies have taken a particular interest in chip
technology, putting millions of dollars into developmental research.
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The idea of chemistry chips began as a response to two research trends: geno
mics and combinatorial chemistry, says Michael R. Knapp, vice president of s
cience and technology at Caliper Technologies Corp. in Palo Alto, Calif. The
drive to sequence and identify all the genes in organisms -- the Human Geno
me Project being the most prominent example -- provided an incentive for ent
repreneurs to develop ways to rapidly analyze large numbers of DNA samples (
SN: 3/8/97, p. 144).
"There's a clear need to do thousands -- if not tens of thousands -- of gene
s at one time," says Paul Heaney, senior director of new technology and appl
ications at Orchid Biocomputer in Princeton, N.J. Chips can accomplish these
repetitive tasks quickly and cheaply, while requiring only small amounts of
sample, he says.
At the same time, the techniques of combinatorial chemistry have radically c
hanged the way drug companies look for new drug candidates. Instead of pains
takingly synthesizing compounds one at a time and testing each individually
for therapeutic activity, scientists simultaneously make small quantities of
hundreds of related substances by systematically combining a range of chemi
cal ingredients. They then screen the resulting libraries of compounds for b
iochemical activity.
The faster and easier this screening can be done, the better it is for a pha
rmaceutical company's bottom line.
Microchips may also be able to improve accuracy. Traditional chemistry labs
are "open systems," says Jing Cheng of Nanogen, a biotechnology company in S
an Diego, Calif. Even though some steps in a complex process may be automate
d, a person has to intervene at several points, often moving materials from
one container to another.
Not only can material be lost when it is moved, but an open system carries t
he risk of contamination. In contrast, after the sample is added to a microc
hip system, the analysis takes place entirely within the chip.
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Chips may also be valuable to forensic scientists, who often have only small
amounts of material to analyze, and hospital laboratories, where there is a
need for accurate, automated diagnostic tests. The chips could be made disp
osable to prevent cross-contamination among samples. Companies are approachi
ng chip design from different angles. For example, Caliper Technologies is d
eveloping custom chips made from glass, plastic, or silicon that "miniaturiz
e more conventional ways of doing experiments," says Knapp. "We can design w
hatever we want in miniature and recreate any experiment we can do on the la
b bench."
Other groups are developing more generic chips that can be adapted for a wid
e variety of analyses.
Researchers face the challenge of scaling down the pumps, valves, and reacti
on vessels found in larger lab devices. The chip components may not correspo
nd to those available in traditional chemistry laboratories. There is no min
iature centrifuge in a chip, for example, says Knapp. In fact, the chips gen
erally have no moving parts at all.
Instead of using motors to move material around on a chip, a common strategy
takes advantage of the charged, ionic nature of the cells and molecules the
mselves.
One trick is to use electrophoresis, a widely used technique for separating
molecules by size. In the large-scale method, an electric voltage pulls DNA
samples through a porous gel, moving different-size fragments at different r
ates and causing them to separate as marathon runners do in a race.
On a microchip, a simple pump might consist of electrodes that apply a volta
ge to pull cells and fluids through channels. Similarly, a miniature valve c
ould use a voltage to block a fluid's flow. The valves in Orchid's chips are
simply breaks in the capillaries that hold back fluids with surface tension
. To restart the flow, electrodes protruding into the capillaries give the f
luid an electric stimulus, overcoming the tension.
Orchid's 5-centimeter-square chips have a 12-by-12 array of chambers connect
ed to form a "fluidic network," says Heaney. Made of multiple layers of glas
s or plastic, the chips are designed to perform as many as 144 simultaneous
chemical reactions. In a three-layer chip, for example, the top layer contai
ns the electronic connections, the middle layer the channels that distribute
the fluids, and the bottom layer the chambers where chemical reactions take
place.
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In the June Nature Biotechnology, Cheng and his Nanogen colleagues describe
a chip designed to isolate the bacterium Escherichia coli from a blood sampl
e and remove the microbe's DNA. The DNA is then analyzed by another chip. Th
is type of sample preparation is one of the most difficult steps for researc
hers developing chip-based systems, Cheng says.
Their silicon chip, one millimeter on a side, carries 25 round, platinum ele
ctrodes arranged in a 5-by-5 array. The chip is connected to two tubes: one
carries solutions to the chip and the other escorts them away.
A blood sample passes through the chip while an oscillating pattern of elect
ric voltage is applied to the electrodes. Chemicals added to the chip adjust
the blood's electrical properties so that a voltage pulls blood cells in on
e direction and bacteria in the other.
Through trial and error, Cheng and his colleagues found that an electric fie
ld with a frequency of 10 kiloHertz caused bacteria to collect on the electr
odes and red and white blood cells to gather in the spaces between. A fluid
pumped in over the chip washes the blood cells away.
Then, pulses of electric current break apart the bacteria, releasing their i
nnards. An enzyme solution eats away the proteins in the cells, leaving the
DNA and RNA intact. The resulting melange of molecules is then pumped out, a
nd the genetic material is analyzed by another chip.
The 25-electrode chip can also be used to separate cervical cancer cells fro
m blood cells, Cheng and his colleagues report in the June 1 Analytical Chem
istry. "We are creating a platform for many different assays," he says.
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Chip makers have found that miniaturizing chemical processes results in a se
t of problems different from those routinely encountered in a conventional l
aboratory. For example, Knapp says, "There's so much wall space compared to
the volume of the sample that the wall exerts a chemical impact." Molecules
or biological cells inside a chip so frequently encounter the material that
contains them that they may undergo unwanted chemical reactions.
Many companies prefer to make microchips out of glass, which interacts the l
east with samples. Plastic is cheap, which makes it a good choice for dispos
able chips, says Knapp, but it has more surface reactions and may not be as
durable as other materials.
Silicon dissipates heat better than glass, getting rid of temperature variat
ions that can push cells where they are not supposed to go. To mask the reac
tivity of the silicon surface, researchers have developed various ways to pu
t down barrier layers. For example, Peter Wilding of the University of Penns
ylvania School of Medicine in Philadelphia, who has been working on chemistr
y chips for more than a decade, uses silicon dioxide to "passivate the surfa
ce." At Nanogen, scientists deposit a gel on the walls that makes the silico
n nonstick.
These Lilliputian laboratories also come with their own "miniature plumbing
problem," says Heaney. The physics and engineering principles that apply to
fluids moving on a microscopic scale are so different from conventional prop
erties that they have been given their own name: microfluidics. "When you pu
t fluids in small spaces, things happen that surprise you," says Knapp.
Caliper is working towards creating a device about the size of a toaster tha
t could serve as a personal laboratory workstation -- "a Nintendo machine fo
r the lab," Knapp says. A scientist could simply plug in a cartridge contain
ing the chip appropriate for a test. Because the machine would be connected
to a computer, "it not only does the experiment for you but collects the dat
a, too."
Indeed, says Wilding, companies will have to package the chips in convenient
devices. "The real breakthrough will not be in the demonstration of the tec
hnology but in the completion of a system that people can use," he says.
Eventually, the chips may even find their way into home health-testing kits,
says Cheng. Now that home computers are commonplace, home chemistry labs mi
ght not be far behind.
From Science News, Vol. 154, No. 7, August 15, 1998, p. 104. Copyright ó 19
98 by Science Service.
References:
·Cheng, J., et al. 1998. Preparation and hybridization analysis of DNA/RNA
from E. coli on microfabricated bioelectronic chips. Nature Biotechnology 16
(June):541
· . ______. 1998. Isolation of cultured cervical carcinoma cells mixed with
peripheral blood cells on a bioelectronic chip. Analytical Chemistry 70(Jun
e 1):2321.
Further Readings:
· Kricka, L.J. 1998. Revolution on a square centimeter. Nature Biotechnolog
y 16(June):513.
· Pfost, D.R. 1998. The engineering of drug discovery. Nature Biotechnology
16(April):313.
·Travis, J. 1997. Chips ahoy. Science News 151(March 8):144.
Sources:
·Jing Cheng
Nanogen, Inc.
10398 Pacific Center Court
San Diego, CA 92121
Web site: http://www.nanogen.com
· Paul Heaney
Orchid Biocomputer, Inc.
201 Washington Road
Princeton, NJ 08543-2197
· Michael R. Knapp
Caliper Technologies Corp.
1275 California Avenue
Palo Alto, CA 94304
Web site: http://www.calipertech.com
· Peter Wilding
University of Pennsylvania
School of Medicine Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
3400 spruce Street Philadelphia, PA 19104
--
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