Chemistry 版 (精华区)
发信人: zjliu (秋天的萝卜), 信区: Chemistry
标 题: On Cesium Time
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (Tue Mar 30 20:05:38 2004), 站内信件
On Cesium Time
Dennis_Loney
“Thy glass will show thee how thy beauties wear / Thy dial how thy precious m
inutes waste”
—Shakespeare, Sonnet 77
http://bbs1.nju.edu.cn/file/10803990037.jpg
Courtesy of NIST
Time is mutable in our minds: It flies by or is excruciatingly slow. We either
have too much of it or too little. Often we preface it with adjectives such a
s precious or fleeting or borrowed. Inevitably, time runs out.
Except that it doesn’t. Time is a constant; and throughout history; humans ha
ve developed devices to mark its passing. Lengthening shadows cast by giant st
one structures, like obelisks or the pillars of Stonehenge, were used by ancie
nt civilizations to measure time. The “shadow clock” was refined into a more
portable and accurate sundial around 1500 BCE. Spring-powered, or mechanical
clocks emerged in Europe sometime around the 13th century. They weren’t very
accurate (the best, losing or gaining 15 minutes a day), but neither were the
water clocks they eventually replaced.
A major advance in timekeeping came when Christian Huygens created the first p
endulum clock in 1656. The Dutchman kept refining the timepiece by minimizing
the mechanical friction that slows down the pendulum’s swing. Huygens’s cloc
k was accurate within an unprecedented 10 seconds a day, which was whittled do
wn to one-hundredth of a second per day by the late 1800s. Huygens also develo
ped the balance wheel and spring assembly that is still found in some wristwat
ches today.
Quartz crystal clocks surpassed the pendulum and balance wheel clocks in accur
acy in the 1930s and ’40s. Based on the piezoelectric property of quartz crys
tals—which are crystals that acquire a charge when compressed, twisted, or di
storted—quartz clocks generate a constant frequency electric signal that can
be used to operate an electronic clock display. Because they have no gears or
escapements to disturb their regular frequency, quartz clocks are extremely ac
curate and have become the dominant timekeeping technology.
But if you’re looking for accuracy, few timepieces approach the National Inst
itute of Standards and Technology’s (NIST) Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock locat
ed in Boulder, CO. One of a handful of atomic clocks that define Coordinated U
niversal Time (the official world time, a.k.a. Greenwich Mean Time), it is so
accurate that it will neither gain or lose a second in 20 million years. That’
s a huge improvement over the cesium beam atomic clock (the United State’s pr
imary time and frequency standard during the 1990s), which lost a second every
1.4 million years.
In these amazing cesium beam timepieces, liquid cesium is heated to a gaseous
state in an oven, which has a hole that allows atoms to escape at high speeds.
As these particles pass between two electromagnets, the field separates the a
toms into two beams according to whether they are available to absorb or relea
se energy. Those in the lower energy state (can absorb energy) pass through th
e ends of a U-shaped cavity and are exposed to microwave radiation, which exci
tes transitions of many of the atoms from the lower to the higher energy state
. The beam continues through another pair of electromagnets, whose field divid
es the beam yet again. The atoms in the higher energy state strike a hot wire
and are ionized. A mass spectrometer then selects the cesium atoms and guides
them onto an electron multiplier.
The frequency of the microwaves is adjusted until the output current of the el
ectron multiplier is maximized, constituting the measurement of the atoms' res
onance frequency. This frequency is electronically divided down and used in a
feedback control circuit to keep the quartz crystal oscillator locked to a fre
quency of 5 megahertz.
All atoms of cesium-133 are identical. When they absorb or release energy, the
radiation they produce has the exactly the same frequency, making them the pe
rfect timepieces. In fact, in 1967, the 13th General Conference of Weights and
Measures defined the second based on atomic time rather than on the motion of
the Earth.
The cesium fountain atomic clock differs from the beam variety in two ways: th
e fountain design, which essentially gently pushes the cesium atoms into a bal
l, and laser cooling that slows the movement of the atoms and cools them to te
mperatures near absolute zero, reducing their thermal velocity to a few centim
eters per second. Traditional cesium clocks measure room temperature atoms mov
ing at several hundred meters per second.
The laser-cooled ball of atoms is then tossed upward by another laser and pass
es through a microwave cavity, and then passes it again, courtesy of gravity,
on its way down. The result is a longer observation time, which makes it easie
r to tune the microwave frequency and leads to better control of the resonance
frequency of cesium—which ultimately improves accuracy.
frequency of cesium—which ultimately improves accuracy.
The cesium fountain atomic clock was built and tested in a mere four years in
time for the turn of the century. Now, the good folks at NIST are working on s
omething that they hope will be even more accurate via trapped ions. Ions can
be trapped for long periods of time, which allows long interrogation times and
can provide the basis for highly stable, accurate frequency standards. NIST’
s Ion Storage Group is trying to produce a trapped ion frequency standard whic
h they hope will be the most accurate and most stable timekeeping device ever
created.
This article first appeared on February 23, 2004.
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