Physics 版 (精华区)
发信人: cs (cs), 信区: Physics
标 题: 激光发明者--梅曼
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年04月17日18:43:04 星期二), 站内信件
Inventing the light fantastic:
Ted Maiman and the world's first laser
by Greg Friedman
Ted Maiman, inventor of the world's first laser, with his wife, Kathleen.
In 1960, the race to build the first laser was red hot. Bell Lab's Arthur L.
Schawlow and Charles H. Townes had, two years previously, published their t
heoretical paper, "Infrared and optical masers," but no one had yet built a
working model. A number of large research labs and companies were throwing e
normous sums of money at the project, but to no avail; many scientists were
beginning to think coherent light was an impossibility.
At Hughes Aircraft, a junior employee named Theodore H. "Ted" Maiman was jus
t one more competitor eager to create the elusive device. Despite a paltry b
udget and the most important scientists of the day ridiculing his ideas, he
would stun the world by creating the world's first laser out of a discredite
d material -- ruby -- on 16 May 1960.
To honor the fortieth anniversary of Maiman's historic invention, SPIE's Exe
cutive Director Eugene Arthurs spoke with Maiman to hear first-hand the stor
y of how the scientist succeeded in winning the laser race. This article is
based on that conversation.
The year 2000, incidentally, is an auspicious point in time to revisit the d
ramatic tale: forty is the ruby anniversary.
The stage is set
Maiman was born in Los Angeles, California, in 1927. His father was an elect
ronics engineer and inventor, who worked for several years at Bell Labs duri
ng the war. The elder Maiman was creative, prolific, and had a strong moral
conviction that science should be used to better the world.
Among the elder Maiman's inventions was the dc-to-dc converter for use in au
tomobiles, which enabled cars to run radios. However, he was unable to attra
ct the interest of the automobile industry -- although several years later t
he device appeared in most automobiles.
Maiman's father also spent a fair amount of time attempting to introduce ele
ctronics into medicine. He invented what is probably the first electronic st
ethoscope. He brought the stethoscope to a doctor, who heard a great deal mo
re than he could through his conventional stethoscope. But he rejected it, s
aying he didn't know what to do with the extra information he was hearing.
The elder Maiman never gave up his dream of introducing electronics to medic
ine. He strongly encouraged his son to get degrees in both electronics and m
edicine so his work would more readily be accepted by the medical community.
He inspired his son with a love of electronics, and by the time the younger
Maiman was 12 he had a job repairing valve devices. By the time he was 14,
he was running the company's shop.
The back door
Maiman attended the Univ. of Colorado, receiving a B.S. in engineering physi
cs in 1949. He then set his sights on the Stanford Univ. physics department
for graduate work, but was initially rejected. He ended up attending Columbi
a Univ., but was not happy there; the classes were enormous, and the cloiste
red buildings were a far cry from the wide-open campus he had grown to love
at Colorado. So he again applied to the Stanford physics department, and was
again rejected.
Maiman eventually got into Stanford by going through "the back door" -- he a
pplied to, and was accepted by, the electronics engineering department. Of c
ourse, the electronics engineering and physics departments had close ties; M
aiman took electives in physics, and was finally accepted into the physics p
rogram, which was his ambition all along.
At Stanford, Maiman did graduate work under Nobel Laureate Willis Lamb. His
thesis under Lamb involved a fundamental measurement of the "Lamb Shift"; wh
ile conducting the experiment he learned a great deal about optical instrume
ntation, which was very appropriate to his later work on the laser.
Maiman graduated with a PhD in physics from Stanford in 1955. While finishin
g his thesis he booked a world cruise with his own hard-earned money, and wa
s thus anxious to leave the university. However, Maiman had built a great de
al of the electronic equipment that allowed Lamb to conduct very precise sci
entific measurements, and there was no one else in the lab who could run it.
So he and Lamb came to an agreement: before he left Stanford, Maiman would
train another young student how to use this equipment, and the student would
assist Ted in taking some of the measurements he needed to complete his the
sis. The young student Maiman trained was Irwin Weider, who would later also
be involved in the laser saga.
Toward building a laser
In 1958, Bell Labs' Schawlow and Townes had predicted the operation of an op
tical laser. In their paper, they suggested that one way to do it was using
alkali vapors. They applied for, and were granted, a patent. But a working l
aser had yet to be built.
Maiman was now working at Hughes Research, which was one of the many labs in
volved in the race to implement the laser. TRG on Long Island, NY, received
a $1 million grant in 1959 from the Pentagon. Bell Labs, RCA Labs, and about
half a dozen very important labs were also involved in trying to make coher
ent light.
At Hughes, Maiman found himself encountering a number of obstacles. His boss
es were questioning whether a laser -- even if Maiman could produce one -- w
ould be of any use to the company. He was laughably under-funded, working wi
th a budget of $50,000, which included his salary, his assistants' salaries,
and equipment. Worst of all, the most important scientists of the day were
scoffing at him for continuing to investigate ruby, which had been ruled out
as a lasing material.
When Maiman did finally abandon ruby, it was largely due to measurements tak
en by a young Westinghouse scientist. The scientist, Irwin Weider -- the ver
y same man Maiman had trained years before at Stanford -- had concluded that
the fluorescence quantum efficiency of ruby was about 1 percent.
While Maiman had persevered in spite of the scorn of the science establishme
nt, he had trained Weider himself, and thus accepted Weider's results. Maima
n now believed the 1 percent figure made operating ruby as a laser impossibl
e.
Maiman began investigating other materials, but, having found no alternative
prospects, he returned to ruby to try to understand why it was so inefficie
nt. He felt that if he could understand what was causing the inefficiency, h
e could then work with crystal experts to identify an appropriate material.
He measured the quantum efficiency again, and came up with a figure of about
75 percent! Ruby was again a laser candidate.
At this time, nearly all the scientists in the major labs were trying to mak
e a continuous laser-few were considering the possibility that a pulsed lase
r might be easier to build. Maiman, remaining true to his character, did not
accept the conventional wisdom. He began thinking about alternative designs
when he calculated that by using the brightest continuous lamp with an elli
psoidal reflector he could find, he might -- just barely -- be able to make
the ruby work continuously.
Maiman's situation was curious. His calculations indicated he could build a
continuous laser, but his margin of safety using the world's brightest lamp
would only be 5 to 10 percent. He was already being pilloried from all sides
; if he failed, it would almost certainly mean the end of his project. But w
hat could be the alternative?
At about that time he came across an article on photographic strobe lamps, a
nd discovered that their brightness temperature was about 8000 or 9000 K. Th
e continuous dc arc lamp he had looked at had a brightness temperature of ab
out 4000 K. He checked his calculations carefully (by slide rule, of course;
calculators and desktop computers were still science fiction in 1960). An i
nnovative optical pump and probe and simultaneous GHz resonant cavity experi
ment convinced him the strobe lamp could make optical gain a reality.
The helical shape of the strobe lamps made using an optical collector very d
ifficult. But by surrounding the ruby rod with the lamp and using an externa
l collector, Maiman was able to achieve a reasonable amount of pumping effic
iency. He obtained a ruby rod from Union Carbide. It was a unique request, a
nd took the company five or six months to prepare-it had never before been a
sked to optically finish a ruby rod.
In 1960, there were no coating surfaces for laser mirrors, and multilayer co
atings were only at the disposal of the largest labs that could afford the t
echnology. But Maiman knew about silvering ruby from his maser days, and he
used the same technique to silver the ends of this rod.
Maiman's rigorous investigation paid off when, on 16 May 1960, he fired up h
is equipment and the laser made the historic leap from theory to reality. Af
ter nine months of effort, working with a very small budget and under the sc
orn of nearly the entire science community, he had beaten Lincoln Labs, IBM,
Westinghouse, Siemens, RCA Labs, GE, Bell Labs, TRG, and every other large
and small player in the race to build the world's first laser.
Maiman prepared a paper and submitted it to Physical Review Letters. Whether
the publication was reflecting the science establishment's continuing disda
in for Maiman's individualist efforts is unknown, but Physical Review Letter
s rejected the paper. He ended up submitting a very short paper called "Stim
ulated optical radiation in ruby" to Nature in the UK, where it appeared on
6 August 1960, sandwiched between two papers that were, by comparison, quite
mundane.
The keys to success
Maiman attributes his success with the ruby laser to four things. First, he
had a solid background in both electronics and optics, which was very unusua
l in those days. The laser project lasted only nine months, but all his prio
r experiences went into that effort -- everything he had learned experimenti
ng with masers, working in Lamb's lab, and even the knowledge he gained fixi
ng equipment when he was 12.
Second, Maiman's philosophy is to keep things simple. He has always excelled
at multiple-choice questions by eliminating the wrong answers, and that's h
ow he approaches science. In the heat of the race to build the laser, Maiman
was able to avoid blind alleys better than others.
The third thing Maiman attributes to his success is his refusal to follow th
e pronouncements of the science establishment about how to make a laser. The
"guru effect," as he calls it, sent all the researchers off in the wrong di
rection. A lot of time and effort were wasted following the recommendations
of the gurus, which delayed them and worked to Maiman's advantage.
Finally, he's a maverick spirit. He possessed a confidence that allowed him
to persevere, despite being a junior employee, relatively new at his job, an
d having the world's leading scientists ridiculing his approach.
When asked whether he considers himself a scientist or an engineer, Maiman s
aid he's both. He believes many scientists can't easily be categorized as th
eoretical or experimental; they use both theoretical and experimental practi
ces.
The life ray
On 7 July 1960, Hughes held a press conference to announce the invention of
the laser. Maiman listed for the journalists a number of possible applicatio
ns for the laser, such as cutting, welding, communications, etc. But, in res
ponse to persistent questions about military uses, he acknowledged that it h
ad possible weapons applications. Unfortunately, that is what many in the pr
ess focused on. The front page of one newspaper, for example, announced to t
he world that a Los Angeles scientist had invented the "death ray."
Ted Maiman has written a book about his experiences in the race to build a l
aser called Brighter Than the Sun. It will be published in the summer of 200
0. For more information, visit Maiman's web site: www.laserinventor.com.
Maiman left Hughes in 1962 to establish his own laser research and manufactu
ring company, Korad, which he sold to Union Carbide in 1968. Next, wanting t
o combine both his science and business experience -- what he calls "working
at the interfaces" -- he founded a venture capital firm called Maiman Assoc
iates. In 1976, he joined TRW as vice president of advanced technology for t
he company's electronics and defense sector.
Maiman has been honored with a number of prestigious awards, including SPIE'
s President's Award in 1985, and the Japan Prize -- Asia's equivalent of the
Nobel Prize -- in 1987. He was also inducted into the National Inventors Ha
ll of Fame in 1984.
In 1983 Maiman got involved with medical lasers, and he continues to consult
and advise in that area. It is, in fact, what gives him the greatest satisf
action. In a way, it's a fulfillment of his father's dream to help bring ele
ctronics to medicine. The "death ray" Maiman invented has turned out to be a
"life ray" -- and that is what makes him happiest.
--
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