Physics 版 (精华区)
发信人: PeterWang (PW), 信区: Physics
标 题: Richard P.Feynman - The Meaning of It All(4)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2002年07月01日07:57:28 星期一), 站内信件
There are in science a number of technical consequences that follow from
the principle of observation as judge. For example, the observation
cannot be rough. You have to be very careful. There may have been a
piece of dirt in the apparatus that made the color change; it was not
what you thought. You have to check the observations very carefully, and
then recheck them, to be sure that you understand what all the
conditions are and that you did not misinterpret what you did.
It is interesting that this thoroughness, which is a virtue, is often
misunderstood. When someone says a thing has been done scientifically,
often all he means is that it has been done thoroughly. I have heard
people talk of the "scientific" extermination of the Jews in Germany.
There was nothing scientific about it. It was only thorough. There was
no question of making observations and then checking them in order to
determine something. In that sense, there were "scientific"
exterminations of people in Roman times and in other periods when
science was not so far developed as it is today and not much attention
was paid to observation. In such cases, people should say "thorough"
or "thoroughgoing," instead of "scientific."
There are a number of special techniques associated with the game of
making observations, and much of what is called the philosophy of
science is concerned with a discussion of these techniques. The
interpretation of a result is an example. To take a trivial instance,
there is a famous joke about a man who complains to a friend of a
mysterious phenomenon. The white horses on his farm eat more than the
black horses. He worries about this and cannot understand it, until
his friend suggests that maybe he has more white horses than black
ones.
It sounds ridiculous, but think how many times similar mistakes are made
in judgments of various kinds. You say, "My sister had a cold, and in
two weeks ..." It is one of those cases, if you think about it, in which
there were more white horses. Scientific reasoning requires a certain
discipline, and we should try to teach this discipline, because even
on the lowest level such errors are unnecessary today.
Another important characteristic of science is its objectivity. It is
necessary to look at the results of observation objectively, because
you, the experimenter, might like one result better than another. You
perform the experiment several times, and because of irregularities,
like pieces of dirt falling in, the result varies from time to time. You
do not have everything under control. You like the result to be a
certain way, so the times it comes out that way, you say, "See, it comes
out this particular way." The next time you do the experiment it
comes out different. Maybe there was a piece of dirt in it the first
time, but you ignore it.
These things seem obvious, but people do not pay enough attention to
them in deciding scientific questions or questions on the periphery of
science. There could be a certain amount of sense, for example, in the
way you analyze the question of whether stocks went up or down because
of what the President said or did not say.
Another very important technical point is that the more specific a
rule is, the more interesting it is. The more definite the statement,
the more interesting it is to test. If someone were to propose that
the planets go around the sun because all planet matter has a kind of
tendency for movement, a kind of motility, let us call it an "oomph,"
this theory could explain a number of other phenomena as well. So this
is a good theory, is it not? No. It is nowhere near as good as a
proposition that the planets move around the sun under the influence
of a central force which varies exactly inversely as the square of the
distance from the center. The second theory is better because it is so
specific; it is so obviously unlikely to be the result of chance. It
is so definite that the barest error in the movement can show that it is
wrong; but the planets could wobble all over the place, and,
according to the first theory, you could say, "Well, that is the funny
behavior of the 'oomph.'"
So the more specific the rule, the more powerful it is, the more
liable it is to exceptions, and the more interesting and valuable it
is to check.
Words can be meaningless. If they are used in such a way that no sharp
conclusions can be drawn, as in my example of "oomph," then the
proposition they state is almost meaningless, because you can explain
almost anything by the assertion that things have a tendency to
motility. A great deal has been made of this by philosophers, who say
that words must be defined extremely precisely. Actually, I disagree
somewhat with this; I think that extreme precision of definition is
often not worthwhile, and sometimes it is not possible-in fact mostly it
is not possible, but I will not get into that argument here.
Most of what many philosophers say about science is really on the
technical aspects involved in trying to make sure the method works
pretty well. Whether these technical points would be useful in a field
in which observation is not the judge I have no idea. I am not going
to say that everything has to be done the same way when a method of
testing different from observation is used. In a different field perhaps
it is not so important to be careful of the meaning of words or that
the rules be specific, and so on. I do not know.
In all of this I have left out something very important. I said that
observation is the judge of the truth of an idea. But where does the
idea come from? The rapid progress and development of science requires
that human beings invent something to test.
It was thought in the Middle Ages that people simply make many
observations, and the observations themselves suggest the laws. But it
does not work that way. It takes much more imagination than that. So the
next thing we have to talk about is where the new ideas come from.
Actually, it does not make any difference, as long as they come. We have
a way of checking whether an idea is correct or not that has nothing to
do with where it came from. We simply test it against observation. So
in science we are not interested in where an idea comes from.
There is no authority who decides what is a good idea. We have lost
the need to go to an authority to find out whether an idea is true or
not. We can read an authority and let him suggest something; we can
try it out and find out if it is true or not. If it is not true, so much
the worse- so the "authorities" lose some of their "authority."
The relations among scientists were at first very argumentative, as they
are among most people. This was true in the early days of physics,
for example. But in physics today the relations are extremely good. A
scientific argument is likely to involve a great deal of laughter and
uncertainty on both sides, with both sides thinking up experiments and
offering to bet on the outcome. In physics there are so many accumulated
observations that it is almost impossible to think of a new idea
which is different from all the ideas that have been thought of before
and yet that agrees with all the observations that have already been
made. And so if you get anything new from anyone, anywhere, you
welcome it, and you do not argue about why the other person says it is
so.
Many sciences have not developed this far, and the situation is the
way it was in the early days of physics, when there was a lot of arguing
because there were not so many observations. I bring this up because it
is interesting that human relationships, if there is an independent way
of judging truth, can become unargumentative.
Most people find it surprising that in science there is no interest in
the background of the author of an idea or in his motive in expounding
it. You listen, and if it sounds like a thing worth trying, a thing that
could be tried, is different, and is not obviously contrary to
something observed before, it gets exciting and worthwhile. You do not
have to worry about how long he has studied or why he wants you to
listen to him. In that sense it makes no difference where the ideas come
from. Their real origin is unknown; we call it the imagination of the
human brain, the creative imagination-it is known; it is just one of
those "oomphs."
It is surprising that people do not believe that there is imagination in
science. It is a very interesting kind of imagination, unlike that of
the artist. The great difficulty is in trying to imagine something
that you have never seen, that is consistent in every detail with what
has already been seen, and that is different from what has been
thought of; furthermore, it must be definite and not a vague
proposition. That is indeed difficult.
Incidentally, the fact that there are rules at all to be checked is a
kind of miracle; that it is possible to find a rule, like the inverse
square law of gravitation, is some sort of miracle. It is not understood
at all, but it leads to the possibility of prediction-that means it
tells you what you would expect to happen in an experiment you have
not yet done.
It is interesting, and absolutely essential, that the various rules of
science be mutually consistent. Since the observations are all the
same observations, one rule cannot give one prediction and another
rule another prediction. Thus, science is not a specialist business;
it is completely universal. I talked about the atoms in physiology; I
talked about the atoms in astronomy, electricity, chemistry. They are
universal; they must be mutually consistent. You cannot just start off
with a new thing that cannot be made of atoms.
It is interesting that reason works in guessing at the rules, and the
rules, at least in physics, become reduced. I gave an example of the
beautiful reduction of the rules in chemistry and electricity into one
rule, but there are many more examples.
The rules that describe nature seem to be mathematical. This is not a
result of the fact that observation is the judge, and it is not a
characteristic necessity of science that it be mathematical. It just
turns out that you can state mathematical laws, in physics at least,
which work to make powerful predictions. Why nature is mathematical is,
again, a mystery.
I come now to an important point. The old laws may be wrong. How can
an observation be incorrect? If it has been carefully checked, how can
it be wrong? Why are physicists always having to change the laws? The
answer is, first, that the laws are not the observations and, second,
that experiments are always inaccurate. The laws are guessed laws,
extrapolations, not something that the observations insist upon. They
are just good guesses that have gone through the sieve so far. And it
turns out later that the sieve now has smaller holes than the sieves
that were used before, and this time the law is caught. So the laws
are guessed; they are extrapolations into the unknown. You do not know
what is going to happen, so you take a guess.
For example, it was believed-it was discovered- that motion does not
affect the weight of a thing-that if you spin a top and weigh it, and
then weigh it when it has stopped, it weighs the same. That is the
result of an observation. But you cannot weigh something to the
infinitesimal number of decimal places, parts in a billion. But we now
understand that a spinning top weighs more than a top which is not
spinning by a few parts in less than a billion. If the top spins fast
enough so that the speed of the edges approaches 186,000 miles a second,
the weight increase is appreciable-but not until then. The first
experiments were performed with tops that spun at speeds much lower than
186,000 miles a second. It seemed then that the mass of the top
spinning and not spinning was exactly the same, and someone made a guess
that the mass never changes.
How foolish! What a fool! It is only a guessed law, an extrapolation.
Why did he do something so unscientific? There was nothing
unscientific about it; it was only uncertain. It would have been
unscientific not to guess. It has to be done because the
extrapolations are the only things that have any real value. It is
only the principle of what you think will happen in a case you have
not tried that is worth knowing about. Knowledge is of no real value
if all you can tell me is what happened yesterday. It is necessary to
tell what will happen tomorrow if you do something-not only necessary,
but fun. Only you must be willing to stick your neck out.
Every scientific law, every scientific principle, every statement of the
results of an observation is some kind of a summary which leaves out
details, because nothing can be stated precisely. The man simply
forgot-he should have stated the law "The mass doesn't change much
when the speed isn't too high." The game is to make a specific rule
and then see if it will go through the sieve. So the specific guess
was that the mass never changes at all. Exciting possibility! It does no
harm that it turned out not to be the case. It was only uncertain,
and there is no harm in being uncertain. It is better to say something
and not be sure than not to say anything at all.
It is necessary and true that all of the things we say in science, all
of the conclusions, are uncertain, because they are only conclusions.
They are guesses as to what is going to happen, and you cannot know what
will happen, because you have not made the most complete experiments.
It is curious that the effect on the mass of a spinning top is so
small you may say, "Oh, it doesn't make any difference." But to get a
law that is right, or at least one that keeps going through the
successive sieves, that goes on for many more observations, requires a
tremendous intelligence and imagination and a complete revamping of
our philosophy, our understanding of space and time. I am referring to
the relativity theory. It turns out that the tiny effects that turn up
always require the most revolutionary modifications of ideas.
Scientists, therefore, are used to dealing with doubt and uncertainty.
All scientific knowledge is uncertain. This experience with doubt and
uncertainty is important. I believe that it is of very great value,
and one that extends beyond the sciences. I believe that to solve any
problem that has never been solved before, you have to leave the door to
the unknown ajar. You have to permit the possibility that you do not
have it exactly right. Otherwise, if you have made up your mind already,
you might not solve it.
When the scientist tells you he does not know the answer, he is an
ignorant man. When he tells you he has a hunch about how it is going
to work, he is uncertain about it. When he is pretty sure of how it is
going to work, and he tells you, "This is the way it's going to work,
I'll bet," he still is in some doubt. And it is of paramount importance,
in order to make progress, that we recognize this ignorance and this
doubt. Because we have the doubt, we then propose looking in new
directions for new ideas. The rate of the development of science is
not the rate at which you make observations alone but, much more
important, the rate at which you create new things to test.
If we were not able or did not desire to look in any new direction, if
we did not have a doubt or recognize ignorance, we would not get any new
ideas. There would be nothing worth checking, because we would know
what is true. So what we call scientific knowledge today is a body of
statements of varying degrees of certainty. Some of them are most
unsure; some of them are nearly sure; but none is absolutely certain.
Scientists are used to this. We know that it is consistent to be able to
live and not know. Some people say, "How can you live without knowing?"
I do not know what they mean. I always live without knowing. That is
easy. How you get to know is what I want to know.
This freedom to doubt is an important matter in the sciences and, I
believe, in other fields. It was born of a struggle. It was a struggle
to be permitted to doubt, to be unsure. And I do not want us to forget
the importance of the struggle and, by default, to let the thing fall
away. I feel a responsibility as a scientist who knows the great value
of a satisfactory philosophy of ignorance, and the progress made
possible by such a philosophy, progress which is the fruit of freedom of
thought. I feel a responsibility to proclaim the value of this
freedom and to teach that doubt is not to be feared, but that it is to
be welcomed as the possibility of a new potential for human beings. If
you know that you are not sure, you have a chance to improve the
situation. I want to demand this freedom for future generations.
Doubt is clearly a value in the sciences. Whether it is in other
fields is an open question and an uncertain matter. I expect in the next
lectures to discuss that very point and to try to demonstrate that it
is important to doubt and that doubt is not a fearful thing, but a thing
of very great value.
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爱情就像暴风雨一样,当它来临的时候,我们大家谁都没有准备好
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