Physics 版 (精华区)
发信人: PeterWang (PW), 信区: Physics
标 题: Richard P.Feynman - The Meaning of It All(9)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2002年07月01日08:03:32 星期一), 站内信件
I would like to mention a somewhat technical idea, but it's the way, you
see, we have to understand how to handle uncertainty. How does
something move from being almost certainly false to being almost
certainly true? How does experience change? How do you handle the
changes of your certainty with experience? And it's rather complicated,
technically, but I'll give a rather simple, idealized example.
You have, we suppose, two theories about the way something is going to
happen, which I will call "Theory A" and "Theory B." Now it gets
complicated. Theory A and Theory B. Before you make any observations,
for some reason or other, that is, your past experiences and other
observations and intuition and so on, suppose that you are very much
more certain of Theory A than of Theory B-much more sure. But suppose
that the thing that you are going to observe is a test. According to
Theory A, nothing should happen. According to Theory B, it should turn
blue. Well, you make the observation, and it turns sort of a greenish.
Then you look at Theory A, and you say, "It's very unlikely," and you
turn to Theory B, and you say, "Well, it should have turned sort of
blue, but it wasn't impossible that it should turn sort of greenish
color." So the result of this observation, then, is that Theory A is
getting weaker, and Theory B is getting stronger. And if you continue to
make more tests, then the odds on Theory B increase. Incidentally, it
is not right to simply repeat the same test over and over and over and
over, no matter how many times you look and it still looks greenish, you
haven't made up your mind yet. But if you find a whole lot of other
things that distinguish Theory A from Theory B that are different,
then by accumulating a large number of these, the odds on Theory B
increase.
Example. I'm in Las Vegas, suppose. And I meet a mind reader, or,
let's say, a man who claims not to be a mind reader, but more
technically speaking to have the ability of telekinesis, which means
that he can influence the way things behave by pure thought. This fellow
comes to me, and he says, "I will demonstrate this to you. We will
stand at the roulette wheel and I will tell you ahead of time whether it
is going to be black or red on every shot."
I believe, say, before I begin, it doesn't make any difference what
number you choose for this. I happen to be prejudiced against mind
readers from experience in nature, in physics. I don't see, if I believe
that man is made out of atoms and if I know all of the-most of the-ways
atoms interact with each other, any direct way in which the
machinations in the mind can affect the ball. So from other experience
and general knowledge, I have a strong prejudice against mind readers.
Million to one.
Now we begin. The mind reader says it's going to be black. It's black.
The mind reader says it's going to be red. It's red. Do I believe in
mind readers? No. It could happen. The mind reader says it's going to be
black. It's black. The mind reader says it's going to be red. It's red.
Sweat. I'm about to learn something. This continues, let us suppose,
for ten times. Now it's possible by chance that that happened ten times,
but the odds are a thousand to one against it. Therefore, I now have to
conclude that the odds that a mind reader is really doing it are a
thousand to one that he's not a mind reader still, but it was a
million to one before. But if I get ten more, you see, he'll convince
me. Not quite. One must always allow for alternative theories. There
is another theory that I should have mentioned before. As we went up
to the roulette table, I must have thought in my mind of the possibility
that there is collusion between the so-called mind reader and the
people at the table. That's possible. Although this fellow doesn't
look like he's got any contact with the Flamingo Club, so I suspect that
the odds are a hundred to one against that. However, after he has run
ten times favorable, since I was so prejudiced against mind reading, I
conclude it's collusion. Ten to one. That it's collusion rather than
accident, I mean, is ten to one, but rather more likely collusion than
not is still 10,000 to one. How is he ever going to prove he's a mind
reader to me if I still have this terrible prejudice and now I claim
it's collusion? Well, we can make another test. We can go to another
club.
We can make other tests. I can buy dice. And we can sit in a room and
try it. We can keep on going and get rid of all the alternative
theories. It will not do any good for that mind reader to stand in front
of that particular roulette table ad infinitum. He can predict the
result, but I only conclude it is collusion.
But he still has an opportunity to prove he's a mind reader by doing
other things. Now suppose that we go to another club, and it works,
and another one and it works. I buy dice and it works. I take him home
and I build a roulette wheel; it works. What do I conclude? I conclude
he is a mind reader. And that's the way, but not certainty, of course. I
have certain odds. After all these experiences I conclude he really was
a mind reader, with some odds. And now, as new experiences grow, I
may discover that there's a way of blowing through the corner of your
mouth unseen, and so on. And when I discover that, the odds shift again,
and the uncertainties always remain. But for a long time it is possible
to conclude, by a number of tests, that mind reading really exists.
If it does, I get extremely excited, because I didn't expect it before.
I learned something that I did not know, and as a physicist would
love to investigate it as a phenomenon of nature. Does it depend upon
how far he is from the ball? What about if you put sheets of glass or
paper or other materials in between? That's the way all of these
things have been worked out, what magnetism is, what electricity is. And
what mind reading is would also be ana-lyzable by doing enough
experiments.
Anyway, there is an example of how to deal with uncertainty and how to
look at something scientifically. To be prejudiced against mind
reading a million to one does not mean that you can never be convinced
that a man is a mind reader. The only way that you can never be
convinced that a man is a mind reader is one of two things: If you are
limited to a finite number of experiments, and he won't let you do any
more, or if you are infinitely prejudiced at the beginning that it's
absolutely impossible.
Now, another example of a test of truth, so to speak, that works in
the sciences that would probably work in other fields to some extent
is that if something is true, really so, if you continue observations
and improve the effectiveness of the observations, the effects stand out
more obviously. Not less obviously. That is, if there is something
really there, and you can't see good because the glass is foggy, and you
polish the glass and look clearer, then it's more obvious that it's
there, not less.
I give an example. A professor, I think somewhere in Virginia, has
done a lot of experiments for a number of years on the subject of mental
telepathy, the same kind of stuff as mind reading. In his early
experiments the game was to have a set of cards with various designs
on them (you probably know all this, because they sold the cards and
people used to play this game), and you would guess whether it's a
circle or a triangle and so on while someone else was thinking about it.
You would sit and not see the card, and he would see the card and think
about the card and you'd guess what it was. And in the beginning of
these researches, he found very remarkable effects. He found people
who would guess ten to fifteen of the cards correctly, when it should be
on the average only five. More even than that. There were some who
would come very close to a hundred percent in going through all the
cards. Excellent mind readers.
A number of people pointed out a set of criticisms. One thing, for
example, is that he didn't count all the cases that didn't work. And
he just took the few that did, and then you can't do statistics anymore.
And then there were a large number of apparent clues by which signals
inadvertently, or advertently, were being transmitted from one to the
other.
Various criticisms of the techniques and the statistical methods were
made by people. The technique was therefore improved. The result was
that, although five cards should be the average, it averaged about six
and a half cards over a large number of tests. Never did he get anything
like ten or fifteen or twenty-five cards. Therefore, the phenomenon
is that the first experiments are wrong. The second experiments proved
that the phenomenon observed in the first experiment was nonexistent.
The fact that we have six and a half instead of five on the average
now brings up a new possibility, that there is such a thing as mental
telepathy, but at a much lower level. It's a different idea, because, if
the thing was really there before, having improved the methods of
experiment, the phenomenon would still be there. It would still be
fifteen cards. Why is it down to six and a half? Because the technique
improved. Now it still is that the six and a half is a little bit higher
than the average of statistics, and various people criticized it more
subtly and noticed a Couple of other slight effects which might
account for the results. It turned out that people would get tired
during the tests, according to the professor. The evidence showed that
they were getting a little bit lower on the average number of
agreements. Well, if you take out the cases that are low, the laws of
statistics don't work, and the average is a little higher than the five,
and so on. So if the man was tired, the last two or three were thrown
away. Things of this nature were improved still further. The results
were that mental telepathy still exists, but this time at 5.1 on the
average, and therefore all the experiments which indicated 6.5 were
false. Now what about the five? . . . Well, we can go on forever, but
the point is that there are always errors in experiments that are subtle
and unknown. But the reason that I do not believe that the
researchers in mental telepathy have led to a demonstration of its
existence is that as the techniques were improved, the phenomenon got
weaker. In short, the later experiments in every case disproved all
the results of the former experiments. If remembered that way, then
you can appreciate the situation.
There has been, of course, some considerable prejudice against mental
telepathy and things of this kind, because of its arising in the
mystic business of spiritualism and all kinds of hocus-pocus in the
nineteenth century. Prejudices have a tendency to make it harder to
prove something, but when something exists, it can nevertheless often
lift itself out.
One of the interesting examples is the phenomenon of hypnotism. It
took an awful lot to convince people that hypnotism really existed. It
started with Mr. Mesmer who was curing people of hysteria by letting
them sit around bathtubs with pipes that they would hold onto and all
kinds of things. But part of the phenomenon was a hypnotic phenomenon,
which had not been recognized as existing before. And you can imagine
from this beginning how hard it was to get anybody to pay enough
attention to do enough experiments. Fortunately for us, the phenomenon
of hypnotism has been extracted and demonstrated beyond a doubt even
though it had weird beginnings. So it's not the weird beginnings which
make the thing that people are prejudiced against. They start prejudiced
against it, but after the investigation, then you could change your
mind.
Another principle of the same general idea is that the effect we are
describing has to have a certain permanence or constancy of some kind,
that if a phenomenon is difficult to experiment with, if seen from
many sides, it has to have some aspects which are more or less the
same.
If we come to the case of flying saucers, for example, we have the
difficulty that almost everybody who observes flying saucers sees
something different, unless they were previously informed of what they
were supposed to see. So the history of flying saucers consists of
orange balls of light, blue spheres which bounce on the floor, gray fogs
which disappear, gossamer-like streams which evaporate into the air,
tin, round flat things out of which objects come with funny shapes
that are something like a human being.
If you have any appreciation for the complexities of nature and for
the evolution of life on earth, you can understand the tremendous
variety of possible forms that life would have. People say life can't
exist without air, but it does under water; in fact it started in the
sea. You have to be able to move around and have nerves. Plants have
no nerves. Just think a few minutes of the variety of life that there
is. And then you see that the thing that comes out of the saucer isn't
going to be anything like what anybody describes. Very unlikely. It's
very unlikely that flying saucers would arrive here, in this
particular era, without having caused something of a stir earlier. Why
didn't they come earlier? Just when we're getting scientific enough to
appreciate the possibility of traveling from one place to another,
here come the flying saucers.
There are various arguments of a not complete nature that indicate
some doubt that the flying saucers are coming from Venus-in fact,
considerable doubt. So much doubt that it is going to take a lot of very
accurate experiments, and the lack of consistency and permanency of the
characteristics of the observed phenomenon means that it isn't there.
Most likely. It's not worth paying much more attention to, unless it
begins to sharpen up.
I have argued flying saucers with lots of people. (Incidentally, I
must explain that because I am a scientist does not mean that I have not
had contact with human beings. Ordinary human beings. I know what
they are like. I like to go to Las Vegas and talk to the show girls
and the gamblers and so on. I have banged around a lot in my life, so
I know about ordinary people.) Anyway, I have to argue about flying
saucers on the beach with people, you know. And I was interested in
this: they keep arguing that it is possible. And that's true. It is
possible. They do not appreciate that the problem is not to
demonstrate whether it's possible or not but whether it's going on or
not. Whether it's probably occurring or not, not whether it could
occur.
That brings me to the fourth kind of attitude toward ideas, and that
is that the problem is not what is possible. That's not the problem. The
problem is what is probable, what is happening. It does no good to
demonstrate again and again that you can't disprove that this could be a
flying saucer. We have to guess ahead of time whether we have to
worry about the Martian invasion. We have to make a judgment about
whether it is a flying saucer, whether it's reasonable, whether it's
likely. And we do that on the basis of a lot more experience than
whether it's just possible, because the number of things that are
possible is not fully appreciated by the average individual. And it is
also not clear, then, to them how many things that are possible must not
be happening. That it's impossible that everything that is possible
is happening. And there is too much variety, so most likely anything
that you think of that is possible isn't true. In fact that's a
general principle in physics theories: no matter what a guy thinks of,
it's almost always false. So there have been five or ten theories that
have been right in the history of physics, and those are the ones we
want. But that doesn't mean that everything's false.We'll find out.
--
爱情就像暴风雨一样,当它来临的时候,我们大家谁都没有准备好
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