Physics 版 (精华区)
发信人: PeterWang (PW), 信区: Physics
标 题: Richard P.Feynman - The Meaning of It All(10)
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2002年07月01日08:04:44 星期一), 站内信件
To give an example of a case in which trying to find out what is
possible is mistaken for what is probable, I could consider the
beatification of Mother Seaton. There was a saintly woman who did very
many good works for many people. There is no doubt about that-excuse me,
there's very little doubt about that. And it has already been announced
that she has demonstrated heroicity of virtues. At that stage in the
Catholic system for determining saints, the next question is to consider
miracles. So the next problem we have is to decide whether she
performed miracles.
There was a girl who had acute leukemia, and the doctors don't know
how to cure her. In the duress and troubles of the family in the last
minutes, many things are tried-different medicines, all kinds of things.
Among other things is the possibility of pinning a ribbon which has
touched a bone of Mother Seaton to the sheet of the girl and also
arranging that several hundred people pray for her health. And the
result is that she-no, not the result-then she gets better from
leukemia.
A special tribunal is arranged to investigate this. Very formal, very
careful, very scientific. Everything has to be just so. Every question
has to be asked very carefully Everything that is asked is written
down in a book very carefully. There are a thousand pages of writing,
translated into Italian when it got to the Vatican. Wrapped in special
strings, and so on. And the tribunal asks the doctors in the case what
this was like. And they all agreed that there was no other case, that
this was completely unusual, that at no time before had somebody with
this kind of leukemia had the disease stopped for such a long period
of time. Done. True, we don't know what happened. Nobody knows what
happened. It was possible it was a miracle. The question is not
whether it was possible it was a miracle. It is only a question of
whether it is probable it was a miracle. And the problem for the
tribunal is to determine whether it is probable that it is a miracle.
It's a question to determine whether Mother Seaton had anything to do
with it. Oh, that they did. In Rome. I didn't find out how they did it,
but that's the crux of the matter.
The question is whether the cure had anything to do with the process
associated with the praying of Mother Seaton. In order to answer a
question like that, one would have to gather all cases in which
prayers had been given in the favor of Mother Seaton for the cures of
various people, in various states of disease. They would then have to
compare the success of the cure of these people with the average cure of
people for whom such prayers were not made, and so forth. It's an
honest, straightforward way to do it, and there is nothing dishonest and
nothing sacriligious about it, because if it's a miracle, it will
hold up. And if it's not a miracle, the scientific method will destroy
it.
The people who study medicine and try to cure people are interested in
every method that they can find. And they have developed clinical
techniques in which (all these problems are very difficult) they are
trying all kinds of medicines too, and the woman got better. She also
had chicken pox just before she got better. Has that got anything to
do with it? So there is a definite clinical way to test what it is
that might have something to do with it-by making comparisons and so
forth. The problem is not to determine that something surprising
happens. The problem is to make really good use of that to determine
what to do next, because if it does turn out that it has something to do
with the prayers of Mother Seaton, then it is worthwhile exhuming the
body, which has been done, collecting the bones, touching many ribbons
to the bones, so as to get secondary things to tie on other beds.
I now turn to another kind of principle or idea, and that is that
there is no sense in calculating the probability or the chance that
something happens after it happens. A lot of scientists don't even
appreciate this. In fact, the first time I got into an argument over
this was when I was a graduate student at Princeton, and there was a guy
in the psychology department who was running rat races. I mean, he
has a T-shaped thing, and the rats go, and they go to the right, and the
left, and so on. And it's a general principle of psychologists that
in these tests they arrange so that the odds that the things that happen
happen by chance is small, in fact, less than one in twenty. That means
that one in twenty of their laws is probably wrong. But the statistical
ways of calculating the odds, like coin flipping if the rats were to go
randomly right and left, are easy to work out. This man had designed an
experiment which would show something which I do not remember, if the
rats always went to the right, let's say. I can't remember exactly. He
had to do a great number of tests, because, of course, they could go
to the right accidentally, so to get it down to one in twenty by odds,
he had to do a number of them. And its hard to do, and he did his
number. Then he found that it didn't work. They went to the right, and
they went to the left, and so on. And then he noticed, most remarkably,
that they alternated, first right, then left, then right, then left.
And then he ran to me, and he said, "Calculate the probability for me
that they should alternate, so that I can see if it is less than one
in twenty." I said, "It probably is less than one in twenty, but it
doesn't count." He said, "Why?" I said, "Because it doesn't make any
sense to calculate after the event. You see, you found the peculiarity,
and so you selected the peculiar case."
For example, I had the most remarkable experience this evening. While
coming in here, I saw license plate ANZ 912. Calculate for me, please,
the odds that of all the license plates in the state of Washington I
should happen to see ANZ 912. Well, it's a ridiculous thing. And, in the
same way, what he must do is this: The fact that the rat directions
alternate suggests the possibility that rats alternate. If he wants to
test this hypothesis, one in twenty, he cannot do it from the same
data that gave him the clue. He must do another experiment all over
again and then see if they alternate. He did, and it didn't work.
Many people believe things from anecdotes in which there is only one
case instead of a large number of cases. There are stories of
different kinds of influences. Things that happened to people, and
they all remember, and how do you explain that, they say. I can remember
things in my life, too. And I give two examples of most remarkable
experiences.
The first was when I was in a fraternity at M.I.T. I was upstairs
typewriting a theme on something about philosophy. And I was
completely engrossed, not thinking of anything but the theme, when all
of a sudden in a most mysterious fashion, there swept through my mind
the idea: my grandmother has died. Now, of course, I exaggerate
slightly, as you should in all such stories. I just sort of half got the
idea for a minute. It wasn't something strong, but I exaggerate
slightly. That's important. Immediately after that the telephone rang
downstairs. I remember this distinctly for the reason you will now hear.
The man answered the telephone, and he called, "Hey, Pete!" My name
isn't Peter. It was for somebody else. My grandmother was perfectly
healthy, and there's nothing to it. Now what we have to do is to
accumulate a large number of these in order to fight the few cases
when it could happen. It could happen. It might have occurred. Its not
impossible, and from then on am I supposed to believe in the miracle
that I can tell when my grandmother is dying from something in my
head? Another thing about these anecdotes is that all the conditions are
not described. And for that reason I describe another, less happy,
circumstance.
I met a girl at about thirteen or fourteen whom I loved very much, and
we took about thirteen years to get married. It's not my present wife,
as you will see. And she got tuberculosis and had it, actually, for
several years. And when she got tuberculosis I gave her a clock which
had nice big numbers that turned over rather than ones with a dial,
and she liked it. The day she got sick I gave it to her, and she kept it
by the side of her bed for four, five, six years while she got sicker
and sicker. And ultimately she died. She died at 9:22 in the evening.
And the clock stopped at 9:22 in the evening and never went again.
Fortunately, I noticed some part of the anecdote I have to tell you.
After five years the clock gets kind of weak in the knees. Every once in
a while I had to fix it, so the wheels were loose. And secondly, the
nurse who had to write on the death certificate the time of death,
because the light was low in the room, took the clock and turned it up a
little bit to see the numbers a little bit better and put it down. If I
hadn't noticed that, again I would be in some trouble. So one must be
very careful in such anecdotes to remember all the conditions, and
even the ones that you don't notice may be the explanation of the
mystery.
So, in short, you can't prove anything by one occurrence, or two
occurrences, and so on. Everything has to be checked out very carefully.
Otherwise you become one of these people who believe all kinds of crazy
stuff and doesn't understand the world they're in. Nobody understands
the world they're in, but some people are better off at it than others.
The next kind of technique that's involved is statistical sampling. I
referred to that idea when I said they tried to arrange things so that
they had one in twenty odds. The whole subject of statistical sampling
is somewhat mathematical, and I won't go into the details. The general
idea is kind of obvious. If you want to know how many people are
taller than six feet tall, then you just pick people out at random,
and you see that maybe forty of them are more than six feet so you guess
that maybe everybody is. Sounds stupid. Well, it is and it isn't. If
you pick the hundred out by seeing which ones come through a low door,
you're going to get it wrong. If you pick the hundred out by looking
at your friends you'll get it wrong because they're all in one place
in the country. But if you pick out a way that as far as anybody can
figure out has no connection with their height at all, then if you
find forty out of a hundred, then, in a hundred million there will be
more or less forty million. How much more or how much less can be worked
out quite accurately. In fact, it turns out that to be more or less
correct to 1 percent, you have to have 10,000 samples. People don't
realize how difficult it is to get the accuracy high. For only 1 or 2
percent you need 10,000 tries.
The people who judge the value of advertising in television use this
method. No, they think they use this method. It's a very difficult thing
to do, and the most difficult part of it is the choice of the samples.
How they can arrange to have an average guy put into his house this
gadget by which they remember which TV programs he's looking at, or what
kind of a guy an average guy is who will agree to be paid to write in a
log, and how accurately he writes in the log what he's listening to
every fifteen minutes when a bell goes off, we don't know. We have no
right, therefore, to judge from the thousand, or 10,000, and that's
all it is, people who do this, who study what the average person is
looking at, because there's no question at all that the sample is off.
This business of statistics is well known, and the problem of getting
a good sample is a very serious one, and everybody knows about it, and
it's a scientifically OK business. Except if you don't do it. The
conclusion from all the researchers is that all people in the world
are as dopey as can be, and the only way to tell them anything is to
perpetually insult their intelligence. This conclusion may be correct.
On the other hand, it may be false. And we are making a terrible mistake
if it is false. It is, therefore, a matter of considerable
responsibility to get straightened out on how to test whether or not
people pay attention to different kinds of advertising.
As I say, I know a lot of people. Ordinary people. And I think their
intelligence is being insulted. I mean there's all kinds of things.
You turn on the radio; if you have any soul, you go crazy. People have a
way-I haven't learned it yet-of not listening to it. I don't know how
to do it. So in order to prepare this talk I turned on the radio for
three minutes when I was at home, and I heard two things.
First, I turned it on and I heard Indian music-Indians from New Mexico,
Navajos. I recognized it. I had heard them in Gallup, and I was
delighted. I won't give an imitation of the war chant, although I
would like to. I'm tempted. It's very interesting, and it's deep in
their religion, and it's something that they respect. So I would
report honestly that I was pleased to see that on the radio there was
something interesting. That was cultural. So we have to be honest. If
we're going to report, you listen for three minutes, that's what you
hear. So I kept listening. I have to report that I cheated a little bit.
I kept listening because I liked it; it was good. It stopped. And a man
said, "We are on the warpath against automobile accidents." And then he
went on and said how you have to be careful in automobile accidents.
That's not an insult to intelligence; it's an insult to the Navajo
Indians, and to their religion and their ideas. And so I listened
until I heard that there is a drink of some kind, I think it's called
Pepsi-Cola, for people who think young. So I said, all right, that's
enough. I'll think about that a while. First of all, the whole idea is
crazy. What is a person who thinks young? I suppose it is a person who
likes to do things that young people like to do. Alright, let them think
that. Then this is a drink for such people. I suppose that the people
in the research department of the drink company decided how much lime to
put in as follows: "Well, we used to have a drink that was just an
ordinary drink, but we have to rearrange it, not for ordinary people but
for special people who think young. More sugar." The whole idea that
a drink is especially for people who think young is an absolute
absurdity.
So as a result of this, we get perpetually insulted, our intelligence
always insulted. I have an idea of how to beat it. People have all kinds
of plans, you know, and the ETC. is trying to straighten it out. I've
got an easy plan. Suppose that you purchased the use for thirty days
of twenty-six billboards in Greater Seattle, eighteen of them lighted.
And you put onto the billboards a sign which says, "Has your
intelligence been insulted? Don't buy the product." And then you buy a
few spots on the television or the radio. In the middle of some
program a man comes up and says, "Pardon me, I'm sorry to interrupt you,
but if you find that any of the advertising that you hear insults
your intelligence or in any way disturbs you, we would advise you not to
buy the product," and things will be straightened out as quickly as
it can be. Thank you.
Now if anybody has any money that they want to throw around, I'd
advise that as an experiment to find out about the intelligence of the
average television looker. It's an interesting question. It's a quick
shortcut to find out about their intelligence. But maybe it's a little
bit expensive.
You say, "Its not very important. The advertisers have to sell their
wares," and so on and so on. On the other hand, the whole idea that
the average person is unintelligent is a very dangerous idea. Even if
it's true, it shouldn't be dealt with the way it's dealt with.
Newspaper reporters and commentators-there is a large number of them who
assume that the public is stupider than they are, that the public
cannot understand things that they [the reporters and the
commentators] cannot understand. Now that is ridiculous. I'm not
trying to say they're dumber than the average man, but they're dumber in
some way than somebody else. If I ever have to explain something
scientific to a reporter, and he says what is the idea? Well, I
explain it in words of one syllable, as I would explain it to my
neighbor. He doesn't understand it, which is possible, because he's
brought up differently-he doesn't fix washing machines, he doesn't
know what a motor is, or something. In other words, he has no
technical experience. There are lots of engineers in the world. There
are lots of mechanically minded people. There are lots of people who are
smarter than the reporter, say, in science, for example. It is,
therefore, his duty to report the thing, whether he understands it or
not, accurately and in the way it's been given. The same goes in
economics and other situations. The reporters appreciate the fact that
they don't understand the complicated business about international
trade, but they report, more or less, what somebody says, pretty
closely. But when it comes to science, for some reason or another,
they will pat me on the head and explain to dopey me that the dopey
people aren't going to understand it because he, dope, can't
understand it. But I know that some people can understand it. Not
everybody who reads the newspaper has to understand every article in the
newspaper. Some people aren't interested in science. Some are. At least
they could find out what it's all about instead of discovering that
an atomic bullet was used that came out of a machine that weighed
seven tons. I can't read the articles in the paper. I don't know what
they mean. I don't know what kind of a machine it was just because it
weighed seven tons. And there are now sixty-two kinds of particles,
and I would like to know what atomic bullet he is referring to.
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爱情就像暴风雨一样,当它来临的时候,我们大家谁都没有准备好
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