Physics 版 (精华区)
发信人: Rg (RedGardenia), 信区: Physics
标 题: chapter one:atom in motion
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2002年08月15日12:40:24 星期四), 站内信件
1-1 Introduction
This two-year course in physics is presented from the point of
view that you, the reader, are going to be a physicist. This is
not necessarily the case of course, but that is what every
professor in every subject assumes! If you are going to be a
physicist, you will have a lot to study: two hundred years of the
most rapidly developing field of knowledge that there is. So much
knowledge, in fact, that you might think that you cannot learn all
of it in four years, and truly you cannot; you will have to go to
graduate school too! Surprisingly enough, in spite of the
tremendous amount of work that has been done for all this time it
is possible to condense the enormous mass of results to a large
extent—that is, to find laws which summarize all our knowledge.
Even so, the laws are so hard to grasp that it is unfair to you to
start exploring this tremendous subject without some kind of map
or outline of the relationship of one part of the subject of
science to another. Following these preliminary remarks, the first
three chapters will therefore outline the relation of physics to
the rest of the sciences, the relations of the sciences to each
other, and the meaning of science, to help us develop a "feel" for
the subject. You might ask why we cannot teach physics by just
giving the basic laws on page one and then showing how they work
in all possible circumstances, as we do in Euclidean geometry,
where we state the axioms and then make all sorts of deductions.
(So, not satisfied to learn physics in four years, you want to
learn it in four minutes?) We cannot do it in this way for two
reasons. First, we do not yet know all the basic laws: there is an
expanding frontier of ignorance. Second, the correct statement of
the laws of physics involves some very unfamiliar ideas which
require advanced mathematics for their description. Therefore, one
needs a considerable amount of preparatory training even to learn
what the words mean. No, it is not possible to do it that way. We
can only do it piece by piece. Each piece, or part, of the whole
of nature is always merely an approximation to the complete truth,
or the complete truth so far as we know it. In fact, everything we
know is only some kind of approximation, because we know that we
do not know all the laws as yet. Therefore, things must be learned
only to be unlearned again or, more likely, to be corrected. The
principle of science, the definition, almost, is the following:
The test of all knowledge is experiment. Experiment is the sole
judge of scientific "truth." But what is the source of knowledge?
Where do the laws that are to be tested come from? Experiment,
itself, helps to produce these laws, in the sense that it gives us
hints. But also needed is imagination to create from these hints
the great generalizations—to guess at the wonderful, simple, but
very strange patterns beneath them all, and then to experiment to
check again whether we have made the right guess. This imagining
process is so difficult that there is a division of labor in
physics: there are theoretical physicists who imagine, deduce, and
guess at new laws, but do not experiment; and then there are
experimental physicists who experiment, imagine, deduce, and
guess. We said that the laws of nature are approximate: that we
first find the "wrong" ones, and then we find the "right" ones.
Now, how can an experiment be "wrong" ? First, in a trivial way:
if something is wrong with the apparatus that you did not notice.
But these things are easily fixed, and checked back and forth. So
without snatching at such minor things, how can the results of an
experiment be wrong? Only by being inaccurate. For example, the
mass of an object never seems tochange; a spinning top has the
same weight as a still one. So a "law" was invented: mass is
constant, independent of speed. That "law" is now found to be
incorrect. Mass is found to increase with velocity, but
appreciable increases require velocities near that of light. A
true law is: if an object moves with a speed of less than one
hundred miles a second the mass is constant to within one part in
a million. In some such approximate form this is a correct law. So
in practice one might think that the new law makes no significant
difference. Well, yes and no. For ordinary speeds we can certainly
forget it and use the simple constantmass law as a good
approximation. But for high speeds we are wrong, and the higher
the speed, the more wrong we are. Finally, and most interesting,
philosophically we are completely wrong with the approximate law.
Our entire picture of the world has to be altered even though the
mass changes only by a little bit. This is a very peculiar thing
about the philosophy, or the ideas, behind the laws. Even a very
small effect sometimes requires profound changes in our ideas.
Now, what should we teach first? Should we teach the correct but
unfamiliar law with its strange and difficult conceptual ideas,
for example the theory of relativity, four-dimensional space-time,
and so on? Or should we first teach the simple "constant-mass"
law, which is only approximate, but does not involve such
difficult ideas? The first is more exciting, more wonderful, and
more fun, but the second is easier to get at first, and is a first
step to a real understanding of the second idea. This point arises
again and again in teaching physics. At different times we shall
have to resolve it in different ways, but at each stage it is
worth learning what is now known, how accurate it is, how it fits
into everything else, and how it may be changed when we learn
more. Let us now proceed with our outline, or general map, of our
understanding of science today (in particular, physics, but also
of other sciences on the periphery), so that when we later
concentrate on some particular point we will have some idea of the
background, why that particular point is interesting, and how it
fits into the big structure. So, what is our over-all picture of
the world? 1-2 Matter is made of atoms If, in some cataclysm, all
of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one
sentence passed on to the next generations of creatures, what
statement would contain the most information in the fewest words?
I believe it is the atomic hypothesis (or the atomic fact, or
whatever you wish to call it) that all things are made of
atoms—little particles that move around in perpetual motion,
attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but
repelling upon being squeezed into one another. In that one
sentence, you will see, there is an enormous amount of information
about the world, if just a little imagination and thinking are
applied. To illustrate the power of the atomic idea, suppose that
we have a drop of water a quarter of an inch on the side. If we
look at it very closely we see nothing but water—smooth,
continuous water. Even if we magnify it with the best optical
microscope available—roughly two thousand times—then the water
drop will be roughly forty feet across, about as big as a large
room, and if we looked rather closely, we would still see
relatively smooth water—but here and there small football-shaped
things swimming back and forth. Very interesting. These are
paramecia. You may stop at this point and get so curious about the
paramecia with their wiggling cilia and twisting bodies that you
go no further, except perhaps to magnify the paramecia still more
and see inside. This, of course, is a subject for biology, but for
the present we pass on and look still more closely at the water
material itself, magnifying it two thousand times again. Now the
drop of water extends about fifteen miles across, and if we look
very closely at it we see a kind of teeming, something which no
longer has a smooth appearance—it looks something like a crowd at
a football game as seen from a very great distance. In order to
see what this teeming is about, we will magnify it another two
hundred and fifty times and we will see something similar to what
is shown in Fig. 1-1. This is a picture of water magnified a
billion times, but idealized in several ways. In the first place,
the particles are drawn in a simple manner with sharp edges, which
is inaccurate. Secondly, for simplicity, they are sketched almost
schematically in a two-dimensional arrangement, but of course they
are moving around in three dimensions. Notice that there are two
kinds of "blobs" or circles to represent the atoms of oxygen
(black) and hydrogen (white), and that each oxygen has two
hydrogens tied to it. (Each little group of an oxygen with its two
hydrogens is called a molecule.) The picture is idealized further
in that the real particles in nature are continually jiggling and
bouncing, turning and twisting around one another. You will have
to imagine this as a dynamic rather than a static picture. Another
thing that cannot be illustrated in a drawing is the fact that the
particles are "stuck together"梩hat they attract each other, this
one pulled by that one, etc. The whole group is "glued together,"
so to speak. On the other hand, the particles do not squeeze
through each other. If you try to squeeze two of them too close
together, they repel. The atoms are 1 or 2 X 10-8 cm in radius.
Now 10-8 cm is called an angstrom (just as another name), so we
say they are 1 or 2 angstroms (? in radius. Another way to
remember their size is this: if an apple is magnified to the size
of the earth, then the atoms in the apple are approximately the
size of the original apple. Now imagine this great drop of water
with all of these jiggling particles stuck together and tagging
along with each other. The water keeps its volume; it does not
fall apart, because of the attraction of the molecules for each
other. If the drop is on a slope, where it can move from one place
to another, the water will flow, but it does not just
disappear梩hings do not just fly apart梑ecause of the molecular
attraction. Now the jiggling motion is what we represent as heat:
when we increase the temperature, we increase the motion. If we
heat the water, the jiggling increases and the volume between the
atoms increases, and if the heating continues there comes a time
when the pull between the molecules is not enough to hold them
together and they do fly apart and become separated from one
another. Of course, this is how we manufacture steam out of
water梑y increasing the temperature; the particles fly apart
because of the increased motion. In Fig. 1-2 we have a picture of
steam. This picture of steam fails in one respect: at ordinary
atmospheric pressure there might be only a few molecules in a
whole room, and there certainly would not be as many as three in
this figure. Most squares this size would contain none梑ut we
accidentally have two and a half or three in the picture (just so
it would not be completely blank). Now in the case of steam we see
the characteristic molecules more clearly than in the case of
water. For simplicity, the molecules are drawn so that there is a
120?angle between them. In actual fact the angle is 105?', and
the distance between the center of a hydrogen and the center of
the oxygen is 0.957 ? so we know this molecule very well. Let us
see what some of the properties of steam vapor or any other gas
are. The molecules, being separated from one another, will bounce
against the walls. Imagine a room with a number of tennis balls (a
hundred or so) bouncing around in perpetual motion. When they
bombard the wall, this pushes the wall away. (Of course we would
have to push the wall back.) This means that the gas exerts a
jittery force which our coarse senses (not being ourselves
magnified a billion times) feels only as an average push. In order
to confine a gas we must apply a pressure. Figure 1-3 shows a
standard vessel for holding gases (used in all textbooks), a
cylinder with a piston in it. Now, it makes no difference what the
shapes of water molecules are, so for simplicity we shall draw
them as tennis balls or little dots. These things are in perpetual
motion in all directions. So many of them are hitting the top
piston all the time that to keep it from being patiently knocked
out of the tank by this continuous banging, we shall have to hold
the piston down by a certain force, which we call the pressure
(really, the pressure times the area is the force). Clearly, the
force is proportional to the area, for if we increase the area but
keep the number of molecules per cubic centimeter the same, we
increase the number of collisions with the piston in the same
proportion as the area was increased. Now let us put twice as many
molecules in this tank, so as to double the density, and let them
have the same speed, i.e., the same temperature. Then, to a close
approximation, the number of collisions will be doubled, and since
each will be just as "energetic" as before, the pressure is
proportional to the density. If we consider the true nature of the
forces between the atoms, we would expect a slight decrease in
pressure because of the attraction between the atoms, and a slight
increase because of the finite volume they occupy. Nevertheless,
to an excellent approximation, if the density is low enough that
there are not many atoms, the pressure is proportional to the
density. We can also see something else: If we increase the
temperature without changing the density of the gas, i.e., if we
increase the speed of the atoms, what is going to happen to the
pressure? Well, the atoms hit harder because they are moving
faster, and in addition they hit more often, so the pressure
increases. You see how simple the ideas of atomic theory are. Let
us consider another situation. Suppose that the piston moves
inward, so that the atoms are slowly compressed into a smaller
space. What happens when an atom hits the moving piston? Evidently
it picks up speed from the collision. You can try it by bouncing a
ping-pong ball from a forward-moving paddle, for example, and you
will find that it comes off with more speed than that with which
it struck. (Special example: if an atom happens to be standing
still and the piston hits it, it will certainly move.) So the
atoms are "hotter" when they come away from the piston than they
were before they struck it. Therefore all the atoms which are in
the vessel will have picked up speed. This means that when we
compress a gas slowly, the temperature of the gas increases. So,
under slow compression, a gas will increase in temperature, and
under slow expansion it will decrease in temperature. We now
return to our drop of water and look in another direction. Suppose
that we decrease the temperature of our drop of water. Suppose
that the jiggling of the molecules of the atoms in the water is
steadily decreasing. We know that there are forces of attraction
between the atoms, so that after a while they will not be able to
jiggle so well. What will happen at very low temperatures is
indicated in Fig. 1-4: the molecules lock into a new pattern which
is ice. This particular schematic diagram of ice is wrong because
it is in two dimensions, but it is right qualitatively. The
interesting point is that the material has a definite place for
every atom, and you can easily appreciate that if somehow or other
we were to hold all the atoms at one end of the drop in a certain
arrangement, each atom in a certain place, then because of the
structure of interconnections, which is rigid, the other end miles
away (at our magnified scale) will have a definite location. So if
we hold a needle of ice at one end, the other end resists our
pushing it aside, unlike the case of water, in which the structure
is broken down because of the increased jiggling so that the atoms
all move around in different ways. The difference between solids
and liquids is, then, that in a solid the atoms are arranged in
some kind of an array, called a crystalline array, and they do not
have a random position at long distances; the position of the
atoms on one side of the crystal is determined by that of other
atoms millions of atoms away on the other side of the crystal.
Figure 1-4 is an invented arrangement for ice, and although it
contains many of the correct features of ice, it is not the true
arrangement. One of the correct features is that there is a part
of the symmetry that is hexagonal. You can see that if we turn the
picture around an axis by 120°, the picture returns to itself. So
there is a symmetry in the ice which accounts for the six-sided
appearance of snowflakes. Another thing we can see from Fig. 1-4
is why ice shrinks when it melts. The particular crystal pattern
of ice shown here has many "holes" in it, as does the true ice
structure. When the organization breaks down, these holes can be
occupied by molecules. Most simple substances, with the exception
of water and type metal, expand upon melting, because the atoms
are closely packed in the solid crystal and upon melting need more
room to jiggle around, but an open structure collapses, as in the
case of water. Now although ice has a "rigid" crystalline form,
its temperature can change— ice has heat. If we wish, we can
change the amount of heat. What is the heat inthe case of ice? The
atoms are not standing still. They are jiggling and vibrating. So
even though there is a definite order to the crystal—a definite
structure—all of the atoms are vibrating "in place." As we
increase the temperature, they vibrate with greater and greater
amplitude, until they shake themselves out of place. We call this
melting. As we decrease the temperature, the vibration decreases
and decreases until, at absolute zero, there is a minimum amount
of vibration that the atoms can have, but not zero. This minimum
amount of motion that atoms can have is not enough to melt a
substance, with one exception: helium. Helium merely decreases the
atomic motions as much as it can, but even at absolute zero there
is still enough motion to keep it from freezing. Helium, even at
absolute zero, does not freeze, unless the pressure is made so
great as to make the atoms squash together. If we increase the
pressure, we can make it solidify. 1-3 Atomic processes So much
for the description of solids, liquids, and gases from the atomic
point of view. However, the atomic hypothesis also describes
processes, and so we shall now look at a number of processes from
an atomic standpoint. The first process that we shall look at is
associated with the surface of the water. What happens at the
surface of the water? We shall now make the picture more
complicated —and more realistic—by imagining that the surface is
in air. Figure 1-5 shows the surface of water in air. We see the
water molecules as before, forming a body of liquid water, but now
we also see the surface of the water. Above the surface we find a
number of things: First of all there are water molecules, as in
steam. This is water vapor, which is always found above liquid
water. (There is an equilibrium between the steam vapor and the
water which will be described later.) In addition we find some
other molecules—here two oxygen atoms stuck together by
themselves, forming an oxygen molecule, there two nitrogen atoms
also stuck together to make a nitrogen molecule. Air consists
almost entirely of nitrogen, oxygen, some water vapor, and lesser
amounts of carbon dioxide, argon, and other things. So above the
water surface is the air, a gas, containing some water vapor. Now
what is happening in this picture? The molecules in the water are
always jiggling around. From time to time, one on the surface
happens to be hit a little harder than usual, and gets knocked
away. It is hard to see that happening in the picture because it
is a still picture. But we can imagine that one molecule near the
surface has just been hit and is flying out, or perhaps another
one has been hit and is flying out. Thus, molecule by molecule,
the water disappears— it evaporates. But if we close the vessel
above, after a while we shall find a large number of molecules of
water amongst the air molecules. From time to time, one of these
vapor molecules comes flying down to the water and gets stuck
again. So we see that what looks like a dead, uninteresting
thing—a glass of water with a cover, that has been sitting there
for perhaps twenty years—really contains a dynamic and
interesting phenomenon which is going on all the time. To our
eyes, our crude eyes, nothing is changing, but if we could see it
a billion times magnified, we would see that from its own point of
view it is always changing: molecules are leaving the surface,
molecules are coming back. Why do we see no change? Because just
as many molecules are leaving as are coming back! In the long run
"nothing happens." If we then take the top of the vessel off and
blow the moist air away, replacing it with dry air, then the
number of molecules leaving is just the same as it was before,
because this depends on the jiggling of the water, but the number
coming back is greatly reduced because there are so many fewer
water molecules above the water. Therefore there are more going
out than coming in, and the water evaporates. Hence, if you wish
to evaporate water turn on the fan! Here is something else: Which
molecules leave? When a molecule leaves it is due to an
accidental, extra accumulation of a little bit more than ordinary
energy, which it needs if it is to break away from the attractions
of its neighbors. Therefore, since those that leave have more
energy than the average, the ones that are left have less average
motion than they had before. So the liquid graduallycools if it
evaporates. Of course, when a molecule of vapor comes from the air
to the water below there is a sudden great attraction as the
molecule approaches the surface. This speeds up the incoming
molecule and results in generation of heat. So when they leave
they take away heat; when they come back they generate heat. Of
course when there is no net evaporation the result is nothing—the
water is not changing temperature. If we blow on the water so as
to maintain a continuous preponderance in the number evaporating,
then the water is cooled. Hence, blow on soup to cool it! Of
course you should realize that the processes just described are
more complicated than we have indicated. Not only does the water
go into the air, but also, from time to time, one of the oxygen or
nitrogen molecules will come in and "get lost" in the mass of
water molecules, and work its way into the water. Thus the air
dissolves in the water; oxygen and nitrogen molecules will work
their way into the water and the water will contain air. If we
suddenly take the air away from the vessel, then the air molecules
will leave more rapidly than they come in, and in doing so will
make bubbles. This is very bad for divers, as you may know. Now we
go on to another process. In Fig. 1-6 we see, from an atomic point
of view, a solid dissolving in water. If we put a crystal of salt
in the water, what will happen? Salt is a solid, a crystal, an
organized arrangement of "salt atoms." Figure 1-7 is an
illustration of the three-dimensional structure of common salt,
sodium chloride. Strictly speaking, the crystal is not made of
atoms, but of what we call ions. An ion is an atom which either
has a few extra electrons or has lost a few electrons. In a salt
crystal we find chlorine ions (chlorine atoms with an extra
electron) and sodium ions (sodium atoms with one electron
missing). The ions all stick together by electrical attraction in
the solid salt, but when we put them in the water we find, because
of the attractions of the negative oxygen and positive hydrogen
for the ions, that some of the ions jiggle loose. In Fig. 1-6 we
see a chlorine ion getting loose, and other atoms floating in the
water in the form of ions. This picture was made with some care.
Notice, for example, that the hydrogen ends of the water molecules
are more likely to be near the chlorine ion, while near the sodium
ion we are more likely to find the oxygen end, because the sodium
is positive and the oxygen end of the water is negative, and they
attract electrically. Can we tell from this picture whether the
salt is dissolving in water or crystallizing out of water? Of
course we cannot tell, because while some of the atoms are leaving
the crystal other atoms are rejoining it. The process is a dynamic
one, just as in the case of evaporation, and it depends on whether
there is more or less salt in the water than the amount needed for
equilibrium. By equilibrium we mean that situation in which the
rate at which atoms are leaving just matches the rate at which
they are coming back. If there is almost no salt in the water,
more atoms leave than return, and the salt dissolves. If, on the
other hand, there are too many "salt atoms," more return than
leave, and the salt is crystallizing. In passing, we mention that
the concept of a molecule of a substance is only approximate and
exists only for a certain class of substances. It is clear in the
case of water that the three atoms are actually stuck together. It
is not so clear in the case of sodium chloride in the solid. There
is just an arrangement of sodium and chlorine ions in a cubic
pattern. There is no natural way to group them as "molecules of
salt." Returning to our discussion of solution and precipitation,
if we increase the temperature of the salt solution, then the rate
at which atoms are taken away is increased, and so is the rate at
which atoms are brought back. It turns out to be very difficult,
in general, to predict which way it is going to go, whether more
or less of the solid will dissolve. Most substances dissolve more,
but some substances dissolve less, as the temperature increases.
1-4 Chemical reactions In all of the processes which have been
described so far, the atoms and the ions have not changed
partners, but of course there are circumstances in which the atoms
do change combinations, forming new molecules. This is illustrated
inFig. 1-8. A process in which the rearrangement of the atomic
partners occurs is what we call a chemical reaction. The other
processes so far described are called physical processes, but
there is no sharp distinction between the two. (Nature does not
care what we call it, she just keeps on doing it.) This figure is
supposed to represent carbon burning in oxygen. In the case of
oxygen, two oxygen atoms stick together very strongly. (Why do not
three or even four stick together? That is one of the very
peculiar characteristics of such atomic processes. Atoms are very
special: they like certain particular partners, certain particular
directions, and so on. It is the job of physics to analyze why
each one wants what it wants. At any rate, two oxygen atoms form,
saturated and happy, a molecule.) The carbon atoms are supposed to
be in a solid crystal (which could be graphite or diamond*). Now,
for example, one of the oxygen molecules can come over to the
carbon, and each atom can pick up a carbon atom and go flying off
in a new combination—"carbon-oxygen"—which is a molecule of the
gas called carbon monoxide. It is given the chemical name CO. It
is very simple: the letters "CO" are practically a picture of that
molecule. But carbon attracts oxygen much more than oxygen
attracts oxygen or carbon attracts carbon. Therefore in this
process the oxygen may arrive with only a little energy, but the
oxygen and carbon will snap together with a tremendous vengeance
and commotion, and everything near them will pick up the energy. A
large amount of motion energy, kinetic energy, is thus generated.
This of course is burning; we are getting heat from the
combination of oxygen and carbon. The heat is ordinarily in the
form of the molecular motion of the hot gas, but in certain
circumstances it can be so enormous that it generates light. That
is how one gets flames. In addition, the carbon monoxide is not
quite satisfied. It is possible for it to attach another oxygen,
so that we might have a much more complicated reaction in which
the oxygen is combining with the carbon, while at the same time
there happens to be a collision with a carbon monoxide molecule.
One oxygen atom could attach itself to the CO and ultimately form
a molecule, composed of one carbon and two oxygens, which is
designated CO 2 and called carbon dioxide. If we burn the carbon
with very little oxygen in a very rapid reaction (for example, in
an automobile engine, where the explosion is so fast that there is
not time for it to make carbon dioxide) a considerable amount of
carbon monoxide is formed. In many such rearrangements, a very
large amount of energy is released, forming explosions, flames,
etc., depending on the reactions. Chemists have studied these
arrangements of the atoms, and found that every substance is some
type of arrangement of atoms. To illustrate this idea, let us
consider another example. If we go into a field of small violets,
we know what "that smell" is. It is some kind of molecule, or
arrangement of atoms, that has worked its way into our noses.
First of all, how did it work its way in? That is rather easy. If
the smell is some kind of molecule in the air, jiggling around and
being knocked every which way, it might have accidentally worked
its way into the nose. Certainly it has no particular desire to
get into our nose. It is merely one helpless part of a jostling
crowd of molecules, and in its aimless wanderings this particular
chunk of matter happens to find itself in the nose. Now chemists
can take special molecules like the odor of violets, and analyze
them and tell us the exact arrangement of the atoms in space. We
know that the carbon dioxide molecule is straight and symmetrical:
O—C—O. (That can be determined easily, too, by physical
methods.) However, even for the vastly more complicated
arrangements of atoms that there are in chemistry, one can, by a
long, remarkable process of detective work, find the arrangements
of the atoms. Figure 1-9 is a picture of the air in the
neighborhood of a violet; again we find nitrogen and oxygen in the
air, and water vapor. (Why is there water vapor? Because the
violet is wet. All plants transpire.) However, we also see a
"monster" composed of carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms, and oxygen
atoms, which have picked a certain particular pattern in which to
be arranged. It is a much more complicated arrange- *One can burn
a diamond in air. ment than that of carbon dioxide; in fact, it is
an enormously complicated arrangement. Unfortunately, we cannot
picture all that is really known about it chemically, because the
precise arrangement of all the atoms is actually known in three
dimensions, while our picture is in only two dimensions. The six
carbons which form a ring do not form a flat ring, but a kind of
"puckered" ring. All of the angles and distances are known. So a
chemical formula is merely a picture of such a molecule. When the
chemist writes such a thing on the blackboard, he is trying to
"draw," roughly speaking, in two dimensions. For example, we see a
"ring" of six carbons, and a "chain" of carbons hanging on the
end, with an oxygen second from the end, three hydrogens tied to
that carbon, two carbons and three hydrogens sticking up here,
etc. How does the chemist find what the arrangement is? He mixes
bottles full of stuff together, and if it turns red, it tells him
that it consists of one hydrogen and two carbons tied on here; if
it turns blue, on the other hand, that is not the way it is at
all. This is one of the most fantastic pieces of detective work
that has ever been done—organic chemistry. To discover the
arrangement of the atoms in these enormously complicated arrays
the chemist looks at what happens when he mixes two different
substances together. The physicist could never quite believe that
the chemist knew what he was talking about when he described the
arrangement of the atoms. For about twenty years it has been
possible, in some cases, to look at such molecules (not quite as
complicated as this one, but some which contain parts of it) by a
physical method, and it has been possible to locate every atom,
not by looking at colors, but by measuring where they are. And lo
and behold!, the chemists are almost always correct. It turns out,
in fact, that in the odor of violets there are three slightly
different molecules, which differ only in the arrangement of the
hydrogen atoms. One problem of chemistry is to name a substance,
so that we will know what it is. Find a name for this shape! Not
only must the name tell the shape, but it must also tell that here
is an oxygen atom, there a hydrogen—exactly what and where each
atom is. So we can appreciate that the chemical names must be
complex in order to be complete. You see that the name of this
thing in the more complete form that will tell you the structure
of it is 4-(2, 2, 3, 6 tetramethyl-5- cyclohexanyl)-3-buten-2-one,
and that tells you that this is the arrangement. We can appreciate
the difficulties that the chemists have, and also appreciate the
reason for such long names. It is not that they wish to be
obscure, but they have an extremely difficult problem in trying to
describe the molecules in words! How do we know that there are
atoms? By one of the tricks mentioned earlier: we make the
hypothesis that there are atoms, and one after the other results
come out the way we predict, as they ought to if things are made
of atoms. There is also somewhat more direct evidence, a good
example of which is the following: The atoms are so small that you
cannot see them with a light microscope—in fact, not even with an
electron microscope. (With a light microscope you can only see
things which are much bigger.) Now if the atoms are always in
motion, say in water, and we put a big ball of something in the
water, a ball much bigger than the atoms, the ball will jiggle
around—much as in a push ball game, where a great big ball is
pushed around by a lot of people. The people are pushing in
various directions, and the ball moves around the field in an
irregular fashion. So, in the same way, the "large ball" will move
because of the inequalities of the collisions on one side to the
other, from one moment to the next. Therefore, if we look at very
tiny particles (colloids) in water through an excellent
microscope, we see a perpetual jiggling of the particles, which is
the result of the bombardment of the atoms. This is called the
Brownian motion. We can see further evidence for atoms in the
structure of crystals. In many cases the structures deduced by
x-ray analysis agree in their spatial "shapes" with the forms
actually exhibited by crystals as they occur in nature. The angles
between the various "faces" of a crystal agree, within seconds of
arc, with angles deduced on the assumption that a crystal is made
of many "layers" of atoms. Everything is made of atoms. That is
the key hypothesis. The most important hypothesis in all of
biology, for example, is that everything that animals do, atomsdo.
In other words, there is nothing that living things do that cannot
be understood from the point of view that they are made of atoms
acting according to the laws of physics. This was not known from
the beginning: it took some experimenting and theorizing to
suggest this hypothesis, but now it is accepted, and it is the
most useful theory for producing new ideas in the field of
biology. If a piece of steel or a piece of salt, consisting of
atoms one next to the other, can have such interesting properties;
if water—which is nothing but these little blobs, mile upon mile
of the same thing over the earth—can form waves and foam, and
make rushing noises and strange patterns as it runs over cement;
if all of this, all the life of a stream of water, can be nothing
but a pile of atoms, how much more is possible? If instead of
arranging the atoms in some definite pattern, again and again
repeated, on and on, or even forming little lumps of complexity
like the odor of violets, we make an arrangement which is always
different from place to place, with different kinds of atoms
arranged in many ways, continually changing, not repeating, how
much more marvelously is it possible that this thing might behave?
Is it possible that that "thing" walking back and forth in front
of you, talking to you, is a great glob of these atoms in a very
complex arrangement, such that the sheer complexity of it staggers
the imagination as to what it can do? When we say we are a pile of
atoms, we do not mean we are merely a pile of atoms, because a
pile of atoms which is not repeated from one to the other might
well have the possibilities which you see before you in the
mirror.
--
这个世界不是缺少美;
而是缺少发现美的眼睛!
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