Physics 版 (精华区)
发信人: Rg (RedGardenia), 信区: Physics
标 题: Chapter three:The Relation Physics&Other Sciece
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2002年08月15日18:11:54 星期四), 站内信件
3-1 Introduction
Physics is the most fundamental and all-inclusive of the sciences,
and has had a profound effect on all scientific development. In
fact, physics is the presentday equivalent of what used to be
called natural philosophy, from which most of our modern sciences
arose. Students of many fields find themselves studying physics
because of the basic role it plays in all phenomena. In this
chapter we shall try to explain what the fundamental problems in
the other sciences are, but of course it is impossible in so small
a space really to deal with the complex, subtle, beautiful matters
in these other fields. Lack of space also prevents our discussing
the relation of physics to engineering, industry, society, and
war, or even the most remarkable relationship between mathematics
and physics. (Mathematics is not a science from our point of view,
in the sense that it is not a natural science. The test of its
validity is not experiment.) We must, incidentally, make it clear
from the beginning that if a thing is not a science, it is not
necessarily bad. For example, love is not a science. So, if
something is said not to be a science, it does not mean that there
is something wrong with it; it just means that it is not a
science.
3-2 Chemistry
The science which is perhaps the most deeply affected by physics
is chemistry. Historically, the early days of chemistry dealt
almost entirely with what we now call inorganic chemistry, the
chemistry of substances which are not associated with living
things. Considerable analysis was required to discover the
existence of the many elements and their relationships—how they
make the various relatively simple compounds found in rocks,
earth, etc. This early chemistry was very important for physics.
The interaction between the two sciences was very great because
the theory of atoms was substantiated to a large extent by
experiments in chemistry. The theory of chemistry, i.e., of the
reactions themselves, was summarized to a large extent in the
periodic chart of Mendeleev, which brings out many strange
relationships among the various elements, and it was the
collection of rules as to which substance is combined with which,
and how, that constituted inorganic chemistry. All these rules
were ultimately explained in principle by quantum mechanics, so
that theoretical chemistry is in fact physics. On the other hand,
it must be emphasized that this explanation is in principle. We
have already discussed the difference between knowing the rules of
the game of chess, and being able to play. So it is that we may
know the rules, but we cannot play very well. It turns out to be
very difficult to predict precisely what will happen in a given
chemical reaction; nevertheless, the deepest part of theoretical
chemistry must end up in quantum mechanics. There is also a branch
of physics and chemistry which was developed by both sciences
together, and which is extremely important. This is the method of
statistics applied in a situation in which there are mechanical
laws, which is aptly called statistical mechanics. In any chemical
situation a large number of atoms are involved, and we have seen
that the atoms are all jiggling around in a very random and
complicated way. If we could analyze each collision, and be able
to follow in detail the motion of each molecule, we might hope to
figure out what would happen, but the many numbers needed to keep
track of all these molecules exceeds so enormously the capacity of
any computer, and certainly the capacity of the mind, that it was
important to develop a method for dealing with such complicated
situations. Statistical mechanics, then, is the science of the
phenomena of heat, or thermodynamics. Inorganic chemistry is, as a
science, now reduced essentially to what are called physical
chemistry and quantum chemistry; physical chemistry to study the
rates at which reactions occur and what is happening in detail
(How do the molecules hit? Which pieces fly off first?, etc.), and
quantum chemistry to help us understand what happens in terms of
the physical laws. The other branch of chemistry is organic
chemistry, the chemistry of the substances which are associated
with living things. For a time it was believed that the substances
which are associated with living things were so marvelous that
they could not be made by hand, from inorganic materials. This is
not at all true—they are just the same as the substances made in
inorganic chemistry, but more complicated arrangements of atoms
are involved. Organic chemistry obviously has a very close
relationship to the biology which supplies its substances, and to
industry, and furthermore, much physical chemistry and quantum
mechanics can be applied to organic as well as to inorganic
compounds. However, the main problems of organic chemistry are not
in these aspects, but rather in the analysis and synthesis of the
substances which are formed in biological systems, in living
things. This leads imperceptibly, in steps, toward biochemistry,
and then into biology itself, or molecular biology.
3-3 Biology
Thus we come to the science of biology, which is the study of
living things. In the early days of biology, the biologists had to
deal with the purely descriptive problem of finding out what
living things there were, and so they just had to count such
things as the hairs of the limbs of fleas. After these matters
were worked out with a great deal of interest, the biologists went
into the machinery inside the living bodies, first from a gross
standpoint, naturally, because it takes some effort to get into
the finer details. There was an interesting early relationship
between physics and biology in which biology helped physics in the
discovery of the conservation of energy, which was first
demonstrated by Mayer in connection with the amount of heat taken
in and given out by a living creature. If we look at the processes
of biology of living animals more closely, we see many physical
phenomena: the circulation of blood, pumps, pressure, etc. There
are nerves: we know what is happening when we step on a sharp
stone, and that somehow or other the information goes from the leg
up. It is interesting how that happens. In their study of nerves,
the biologists have come to the conclusion that nerves are very
fine tubes with a complex wall which is very thin; through this
wall the cell pumps ions, so that there are positive ions on the
outside and negative ions on the inside, like a capacitor. Now
this membrane has an interesting property; if it "discharges" in
one place, i.e., if some of the ions were able to move through one
place, so that the electric voltage is reduced there, that
electrical influence makes itself felt on the ions in the
neighborhood, and it affects the membrane in such a way that it
lets the ions through at neighboring points also. This in turn
affects it farther along, etc., and so there is a wave of
"penetrability" of the membrane which runs down the fiber when it
is "excited" at one end by stepping on the sharp stone. This wave
is somewhat analogous to a long sequence of vertical dominoes; if
the end one is pushed over, that one pushes the next, etc. Of
course this will transmit only one message unless the dominoes are
set up again; and similarly in the nerve cell, there are processes
which pump the ions slowly out again, to get the nerve ready for
the next impulse. So it is that we know what we are doing (or at
least where we are). Of course the electrical effects associated
with this nerve impulse can be picked up with electrical
instruments, and because there are electrical effects, obviously
the physics of electrical effects has had a great deal of
influence on understanding the phenomenon. The opposite effect is
that, from somewhere in the brain, a message is sent out along a
nerve. What happens at the end of the nerve? There the nerve
branches out into fine little things, connected to a structure
near a muscle, called an endplate. For reasons which are not
exactly understood, when the impulse reaches the end of the nerve,
little packets of a chemical called acetylcholine are shot off
(five or ten molecules at a time) and they affect the muscle fiber
and make it contract —how simple! What makes a muscle contract? A
muscle is a very large number of fibers close together, containing
two different substances, myosin and actomyosin, but the machinery
by which the chemical reaction induced by acetylcholine can modify
the dimensions of the molecule is not yet known. Thus the
fundamental processes in the muscle that make mechanical motions
are not known. Biology is such an enormously wide field that there
are hosts of other problems that we cannot mention at
all—problems on how vision works (what the light does in the
eye), how hearing works, etc. (The way in which thinking works we
shall discuss later under psychology.) Now, these things
concerning biology which we have just discussed are, from a
biological standpoint, really not fundamental, at the bottom of
life, in the sense that even if we understood them we still would
not understand life itself. To illustrate: the men who study
nerves feel their work is very important, because after all you
cannot have animals without nerves. But you can have life without
nerves. Plants have neither nerves nor muscles, but they are
working, they are alive, just the same. So for the fundamental
problems of biology we must look deeper; when we do, we discover
that all living things have a great many characteristics in
common. The most common feature is that they are made of cells,
within each of which is complex machinery for doing things
chemically. In plant cells, for example, there is machinery for
picking up light and generating sucrose, which is consumed in the
dark to keep the plant alive. When the plant is eaten the sucrose
itself generates in the animal a series of chemical reactions very
closely related to photosynthesis (and its opposite effect in the
dark) in plants. In the cells of living systems there are many
elaborate chemical reactions, in which one compound is changed
into another and another. To give some impression of the enormous
efforts that have gone into the study of biochemistry, the chart
in Fig. 3-1 summarizes our knowledge to date on just one small
part of the many series of reactions which occur in cells, perhaps
a percent or so of it. Here we see a whole series of molecules
which change from one to another in a sequence or cycle of rather
small steps. It is called the Krebs cycle, the respiratory cycle.
Each of the chemicals and each of the steps is fairly simple, in
terms of what change is made in the molecule, but—and this is a
centrally important discovery in biochemistry—these changes are
relatively difficult to accomplish in a laboratory. If we have one
substance and another very similar substance, the one does not
just turn into the other, because the two forms are usually
separated byan energy barrier or "hill." Consider this analogy: If
we wanted to take an object from one place to another, at the same
level but on the other side of a hill, we could push it over the
top, but to do so requires the addition of some energy. Thus most
chemical reactions do not occur, because there is what is called
an activation energy in the way. In order to add an extra atom to
our chemical requires that we get it close enough that some
rearrangement can occur; then it will stick. But if we cannot give
it enough energy to get it close enough, it will not go to
completion, it will just go part way up the "hill" and back down
again. However, if we could literally take the molecules in our
hands and push and pull the atoms around in such a way as to open
a hole to let the new atom in, and then let it snap back, we would
have found another way, around the hill, which would not require
extra energy, and the reaction would go easily. Now there actually
are, in the cells, very large molecules, much larger than the ones
whose changes we have been describing, which in some complicated
way hold the smaller molecules just right, so that the reaction
can occur easily. These very large and complicated things are
called enzymes. (They were first called ferments, because they
were originally discovered in the fermentation of sugar. In fact,
some of the first reactions in the cycle were discovered there.)
In the presence of an enzyme the reaction will go. An enzyme is
made of another substance called protein. Enzymes are very big and
complicated, and each one is different, each being built to
control a certain special reaction. The names of the enzymes are
written in Fig. 3-1 at each reaction. (Sometimes the same enzyme
may control two reactions.) We emphasize that the enzymes
themselves are not involved in the reaction directly. They do not
change; they merely let an atom go from one place to another.
Having done so, the enzyme is ready to do it to the next molecule,
like a machine in a factory. Of course, there must be a supply of
certain atoms and a way of disposing of other atoms. Take
hydrogen, for example: there are enzymes which have special units
on them which carry the hydrogen for all chemical reactions. For
example, there are three or four hydrogen-reducing enzymes which
are used all over our cycle in different places. It is interesting
that the machinery which liberates some hydrogen at one place will
take that hydrogen and use it somewhere else. The most important
feature of the cycle of Fig. 3-1 is the transformation from GDP to
GTP (guanadine-di-phosphate to guanadine-tri-phosphate) because
the one substance has much more energy in it than the other. Just
as there is a "box" in certain enzymes for carrying hydrogen atoms
around, there are special energy-carrying "boxes" which involve
the triphosphate group. So, GTP has more energy than GDP and if
the cycle is going one way, we are producing molecules which have
extra energy and which can go drive some other cycle which
requires energy, for example the contraction of muscle. The muscle
will not contract unless there is GTP. We can take muscle fiber,
put it in water, and add GTP, and the fibers contract, changing
GTP to GDP if the right enzymes are present. So the real system is
in the GDP-GTP transformation; in the dark the GTP which has been
stored up during the day is used to run the whole cycle around the
other way. An enzyme you see, does not care in which direction the
reaction goes, for if it did it would violate one of the laws of
physics. Physics is of great importance in biology and other
sciences for still another reason, that has to do with
experimental techniques. In fact, if it were not for the great
development of experimental physics, these biochemistry charts
would not be known today. The reason is that the most useful tool
of all for analyzing this fantastically complex system is to label
the atoms which are used in the reactions. Thus, if we could
introduce into the cycle some carbon dioxide which has a "green
mark" on it, and then measure after three seconds where the green
mark is, and again measure after ten seconds, etc., we could trace
out the course of the reactions. What are the "green marks"? They
are different isotopes. We recall that the chemical properties of
atoms are determined by the number of electrons, not by the mass
of the nucleus. But there can be, for example in carbon, six
neutrons or seven neutrons, together with the six protons which
all carbon nuclei have. Chemically, the two atoms C12 and C13 are
the same, but they differ in weight and they have different
nuclear properties, and so they are distinguishable.By using these
isotopes of different weights, or even radioactive isotopes like
C14, which provide a more sensitive means for tracing very small
quantities, it is possible to trace the reactions. Now, we return
to the description of enzymes and proteins. All proteins are not
enzymes, but all enzymes are proteins. There are many proteins,
such as the proteins in muscle, the structural proteins which are,
for example, in cartilage and hair, skin, etc., that are not
themselves enzymes. However, proteins are a very characteristic
substance of life: first of all they make up all the enzymes, and
second, they make up much of the rest of living material. Proteins
have a very interesting and simple structure. They are a series,
or chain, of different ammo acids. There are twenty different
amino acids, and they all can combine with each other to form
chains in which the backbone is CO-NH, etc. Proteins are nothing
but chains of various ones of these twenty amino acids. Each of
the amino acids probably serves some special purpose. Some, for
example, have a sulphur atom at a certain place; when two sulphur
atoms are in the same protein, they form a bond, that is, they tie
the chain together at two points and form a loop. Another has
extra oxygen atoms which make it an acidic substance, another has
a basic characteristic. Some of them have big groups hanging out
to one side, so - that they take up a lot of space. One of the
amino acids, called prolene, is not really an amino acid, but
imino acid. There is a slight difference, with the result that
when prolene is in the chain, there is a kink in the chain. If we
wished to manufacture a particular protein, we would give these
instructions: put one of those sulphur hooks here; next, add
something to take up space; then attach something to put a kink in
the chain. In this way, we will get a complicated-looking chain,
hooked together and having some complex structure; this is
presumably just the manner in which all the various enzymes are
made. One of the great triumphs in recent times (since 1960), was
at last to discover the exact spatial atomic arrangement of
certain proteins, which involve some fifty-six or sixty amino
acids in a row. Over a thousand atoms (more nearly two thousand,
if we count the hydrogen atoms) have been located in a complex
pattern in two proteins. The first was hemoglobin. One of the sad
aspects of this discovery is that we cannot see anything from the
pattern; we do not understand why it works the way it does. Of
course, that is the next problem to be attacked. Another problem
is how do the enzymes know what to be? A red-eyed fly makes a
red-eyed fly baby, and so the information for the whole pattern of
enzymes to make red pigment must be passed from one fly to the
next. This is done by a substance in the nucleus of the cell, not
a protein, called DNA (short for desoxyribose nucleic acid). This
is the key substance which is passed from one cell to another (for
instance, sperm cells consist mostly of DNA) and carries the
information as to how to make the enzymes. DNA is the "blueprint."
What does the blueprint look like and how does it work? First, the
blueprint must be able to reproduce itself. Secondly, it must be
able to instruct the protein. Concerning the reproduction, we
might think that this proceeds like cell reproduction. Cells
simply grow bigger and then divide in half. Must it be thus with
DNA molecules, then, that they too grow bigger and divide in half?
Every atom certainly does not grow bigger and divide in half! No,
it is impossible to reproduce a molecule except by some more
clever way. The structure of the substance DNA was studied for a
long time, first chemically to find the composition, and then with
x-rays to find the pattern in space. The result was the following
remarkable discovery: The DNA molecule is a pair of chains,
twisted upon each other. The backbone of each of these chains,
which are analogous to the chains of proteins but chemically quite
different, is a series of sugar and phosphate groups, as shown in
Fig. 3-2. Now we see how the chain can contain instructions, for
if we could split this chain down the middle, we would have a
series BAADC . . . and every living thing could have a different
series. Thus perhaps, in some way, the specific instructions for
the manufacture of proteins are contained in the specific series
of the DNA. Attached to each sugar along the line, and linking the
two chains together, are certain pairs of cross-links. However,
they are not all of the same kind; there arefour kinds, called
adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, but let us call them A,
B, C, and D. The interesting thing is that only certain pairs can
sit opposite each other, for example A with B and C with D. These
pairs are put on the two chains in such a way that they "fit
together," and have a strong energy of interaction. However, C
will not fit with A, and B will not fit with C; they will only fit
in pairs, A against B and C against D. Therefore if one is C, the
other must be D, etc. Whatever the letters may be in one chain,
each one must have its specific complementary letter on the other
chain. What then about reproduction? Suppose we split this chain
in two. How can we make another one just like it? If, in the
substances of the cells, there is a manufacturing department which
brings up phosphate, sugar, and A, B, C, D units not connected in
a chain, the only ones which will attach to our split chain will
be the correct ones, the complements of BAADC . . ., namely, ABBCD
... Thus what happens is that the chain splits down the middle
during cell division, one half ultimately to go with one cell, the
other half to end up in the other cell; when separated, a new
complementary chain is made by each half-chain. Next comes the
question, precisely how does the order of the A, B, C, D units
determine the arrangement of the amino acids in the protein? This
is the central unsolved problem in biology today. The first clues,
or pieces of information, however, are these: There are in the
cell tiny particles called microsomes, and it is now known that
that is the place where proteins are made. But the microsomes are
not in the nucleus, where the DNA and its instructions are.
Something seems to be the matter. However, it is also known that
little molecule pieces come off the DNA—not as long as the big
DNA molecule that carries all the information itself, but like a
small section of it. This is called RNA, but that is not
essential. It is a kind of copy of the DNA, a short copy. The RNA,
which somehow carries a message as to what kind of protein to make
goes over to the microsome; that is known. When it gets there,
protein is synthesized at the microsome. That is also known.
However, the details of how the amino acids come in and are
arranged in accordance with a code that is on the RNA are, as yet,
still unknown. We do not know how to read it. If we knew, for
example, the "lineup" A, B, C, C, A, we could not tell you what
protein is to be made. Certainly no subject or field is making
more progress on so many fronts at the present moment, than
biology, and if we were to name the most powerful assumption of
all, which leads one on and on in an attempt to understand life,
it is that all things are made of atoms, and that everything that
living things do can be understood in terms of the jigglings and
wigglings of atoms.
3-4 Astronomy
In this rapid-fire explanation of the whole world, we must now
turn to astronomy. Astronomy is older than physics. In fact, it
got physics started by showing the beautiful simplicity of the
motion of the stars and planets, the understanding of which was
the beginning of physics. But the most remarkable discovery in all
of astronomy is that the stars are made of atoms of the same kind
as those on the earth* How was this done? Atoms liberate light
which has definite fre-
* How I'm rushing through this! How much each sentence in this brief story
con
tains.
"The stars are made of the same atoms as the earth." I usually
pick one small topic like this to give a lecture on. Poets say
science takes away from the beauty of the stars—mere globs of gas
atoms. Nothing is "mere." I too can see the stars on a desert
night, and feel them. But do I see less or more ? The vastness of
the heavens stretches my imagination —stuck on this carousel my
little eye can catch one-million-year-old light. A vast
pattern—of which I am a part—perhaps my stuff was belched from
some forgotten star, as one is belching there. Or see them with
the greater eye of Palomar, rushing all apart from some common
starting point when they were perhaps all together. What is the
pattern, or the meaning, or the why ? It does not do harm to the
mystery to know a little about it. For far more marvelous is the
truth than any artists of the past imagined! Why do the poets of
the present not speak of it ? What men are poets who can speak of
Jupiter if he were like a man, but if he is an immense spinning
sphere of methane and ammonia must be silent? quencies, something
like the timbre of a musical instrument, which has definite
pitches or frequencies of sound. When we are listening to several
different tones we can tell them apart, but when we look with our
eyes at a mixture of colors we cannot tell the parts from which it
was made, because the eye is nowhere near as discerning as the ear
in this connection. However, with a spectroscope we can analyze
the frequencies of the light waves and in this way we can see the
very tunes of the atoms that are in the different stars. As a
matter of fact, two of the chemical elements were discovered on a
star before they were discovered on the earth. Helium was
discovered on the sun, whence its name, and technetium was
discovered in certain cool stars. This, of course, permits us to
make headway in understanding the stars, because they are made of
the same kinds of atoms which are on the earth. Now we know a
great deal about the atoms, especially concerning their behavior
under conditions of high temperature but not very great density,
so that we can analyze by statistical mechanics the behavior of
the stellar substance. Even though we cannot reproduce the
conditions on the earth, using the basic physical laws we often
can tell precisely, or very closely, what will happen. So it is
that physics aids astronomy. Strange as it may seem, we understand
the distribution of matter in the interior of the sun far better
than we understand the interior of the earth. What goes on inside
a star is better understood than one might guess from the
difficulty of having to look at a little dot of light through a
telescope, because we can calculate what the atoms in the stars
should do in most circumstances. One of the most impressive
discoveries was the origin of the energy of the stars, that makes
them continue to burn. One of the men who discovered this was out
with his girl friend the night after he realized that nuclear
reactions must be going on in the stars in order to make them
shine. She said "Look at how pretty the stars shine!" He said
"Yes, and right now I am the only man in the world who knows why
they shine." She merely laughed at him. She was not impressed with
being out with the only man who, at that moment, knew why stars
shine. Well, it is sad to be alone, but that is the way it is in
this world. It is the nuclear "burning" of hydrogen which supplies
the energy of the sun; the hydrogen is converted into helium.
Furthermore, ultimately, the manufacture of various chemical
elements proceeds in the centers of the stars, from hydrogen. The
stuff of which we are made, was "cooked" once, in a star, and spit
out. How do we know? Because there is a clue. The proportion of
the different isotopes— how much C12, how much C13, etc., is
something which is never changed by chemical reactions, because
the chemical reactions are so much the same for the two. The
proportions are purely the result of nuclear reactions. By looking
at the proportions of the isotopes in the cold, dead ember which
we are, we can discover what the furnace was like in which the
stuff of which we are made was formed. That furnace was like the
stars, and so it is very likely that our elements were "made" in
the stars and spit out in the explosions which we call novae and
supernovae. Astronomy is so close to physics that we shall study
many astronomical things as we go along.
3-5 Geology
We turn now to what are called earth sciences, or geology. First,
meteorology and the weather. Of course the instruments of
meteorology are physical instruments, and the development of
experimental physics made these instruments possible, as was
explained before. However, the theory of meteorology has never
been satisfactorily worked out by the physicist. "Well," you say,
"there is nothing but air, and we know the equations of the
motions of air." Yes we do. "So if we know the condition of air
today, why can't we figure out the condition of the air tomorrow?"
First, we do not really know what the condition is today, because
the air is swirling and twisting everywhere. It turns out to be
very sensitive, and even unstable. If you have ever seen water run
smoothly over a dam, and then turn into a large number of blobs
and drops as it falls, you will understand what I mean by
unstable. You know the condition of the water before it goes over
thespillway; it is perfectly smooth; but the moment it begins to
fall, where do the drops begin? What determines how big the lumps
are going to be and where they will be? That is not known, because
the water is unstable. Even a smooth moving mass of air, in going
over a mountain turns into complex whirlpools and eddies. In many
fields we find this situation of turbulent flow that we cannot
analyze today. Quickly we leave the subject of weather, and
discuss geology! The question basic to geology is, what makes the
earth the way it is? The most obvious processes are in front of
your very eyes, the erosion processes of the rivers, the winds,
etc. It is easy enough to understand these, but for every bit of
erosion there is an equal amount of something else going on.
Mountains are no lower today, on the average, than they were in
the past. There must be mountsim- forming processes. You will
find, if you study geology, that there are mountain-forming
processes and vulcanism, which nobody understands but which is
half of geology. The phenomenon of volcanoes is really not
understood. What makes an earthquake is, ultimately, not
understood. It is understood that if something is pushing
something else, it snaps and will slide—that is all right. But
what pushes, and why? The theory is that there are currents inside
the earth— circulating currents, due to the difference in
temperature inside and outside— which, in their motion, push the
surface slightly. Thus if there are two opposite circulations next
to each other, the matter will collect in the region where they
meet and make belts of mountains which are in unhappy stressed
conditions, and so produce volcanoes and earthquakes. What about
the inside of the earth? A great deal is known about the speed of
earthquake waves through the earth and the density of distribution
of the earth. However, physicists have been unable to get a good
theory as to how dense a substance should be at the pressures that
would be expected at the center of the earth. In other words, we
cannot figure out the properties of matter very well in these
circumstances. We do much less well with the earth than we do with
the conditions of matter in the stars. The mathematics involved
seems a little too difficult, so far, but perhaps it will not be
too long before someone realizes that it is an important problem,
and really work it out. The other aspect, of course, is that even
if we did know the density, we cannot figure out the circulating
currents. Nor can we really work out the properties of rocks at
high pressure. We cannot tell how fast the rocks should "give";
that must all be worked out by experiment.
3-6 Psychology
Next, we consider the science of psychology.
Incidentally, psychoanalysis is not a science: it is at best a
medical process, and perhaps even more like witchdoctoring. It has
a theory as to what causes disease—lots of different "spirits,"
etc. The witch doctor has a theory that a disease like malaria is
caused by a spirit which comes into the air; it is not cured by
shaking a snake over it, but quinine does help malaria. So, if you
are sick, I would advise that you go to the witch doctor because
he is the man in the tribe who knows the most about the disease;
on the other hand, his knowledge is not science. Psychoanalysis
has not been checked carefully by experiment, and there is no way
to find a list of the number of cases in which it works, the
number of cases in which it does not work, etc. The other branches
of psychology, which involve things like the physiology of
sensation—what happens in the eye, and what happens in the
brain—are, if you wish, less interesting. But some small but real
progress has been made in studying them. One of the most
interesting technical problems may or may not be called
psychology. The central problem of the mind, if you will, or the
nervous system, is this: when an animal learns something, it can
do something different than it could before, and its brain cell
must have changed too, if it is made out of atoms. In what way is
it different ? We do not know where to look, or what to look for,
when something is memorized. We do not know what it means, or what
change there is in the nervous system, when a fact is learned.
This is a very important problem which has not been solved at all.
Assuming, however, that there is some kind of memory thing, the
brain is such an enormous mass of interconnect-ing wires and
nerves that it probably cannot be analyzed in a straightforward
manner. There is an analog of this to computing machines and
computing elements, in that they also have a lot of lines, and
they have some kind of element, analogous, perhaps, to the
synapse, or connection of one nerve to another. This is a very
interesting subject which we have not the time to discuss
further—the relationship between thinking and computing machines.
It must be appreciated, of course, that this subject will tell us
very little about the real complexities of ordinary human
behavior. All human beings are so different. It will be a long
time before we get there. We must start much further back. If we
could even figure out how a dog works, we would have gone pretty
far. Dogs are easier to understand, but nobody yet knows how dogs
work.
3-7 How did it get that way?
In order for physics to be useful to other sciences in a
theoretical way, other than in the invention of instruments, the
science in question must supply to the physicist a description of
the object in a physicist's language. They can say "why does a
frog jump?," and the physicist cannot answer. If they tell him
what a frog is, that there are so many molecules, there is a nerve
here, etc., that is different. If they will tell us, more or less,
what the earth or the stars are like, then we can figure it out.
In order for physical theory to be of any use, we must know where
the atoms are located. In order to understand the chemistry, we
must know exactly what atoms are present, for otherwise we cannot
analyze it. That is but one limitation, of course. There is
another kind of problem in the sister sciences which does not
exist in physics; we might call it, for lack of a better term, the
historical question. How did it get that way? If we understand all
about biology, we will want to know how all the things which are
on the earth got there. There is the theory of evolution, an
important part of biology. In geology, we not only want to know
how the mountains are forming, but how the entire earth was formed
in the beginning, the origin of the solar system, etc. That, of
course, leads us to want to know what kind of matter there was in
the world. How did the stars evolve? What were the initial
conditions? That is the problem of astronomical history. A great
deal has been found out about the formation of stars, the
formation of elements from which we were made, and even a little
about the origin of the universe. There is no historical question
being studied in physics at the present time. We do not have a
question, "Here are the laws of physics, how did they get that
way?" We do not imagine, at the moment, that the laws of physics
are somehow changing with time, that they were different in the
past than they are at present. Of course they may be, and the
moment we find they are, the historical question of physics will
be wrapped up with the rest of the history of the universe, and
then the physicist will be talking about the same problems as
astronomers, geologists, and biologists. Finally, there is a
physical problem that is common to many fields, that is very old,
and that has not been solved. It is not the problem of finding new
fundamental particles, but something left over from a long time
ago—over a hundred years. Nobody in physics has really been able
to analyze it mathematically satisfactorily in spite of its
importance to the sister sciences. It is the analysis of
circulating or turbulent fluids. If we watch the evolution of a
star, there comes a point where we can deduce that it is going to
start convection, and thereafter we can no longer deduce what
should happen. A few million years later the star explodes, but we
cannot figure out the reason. We cannot analyze the weather. We do
not know the patterns of motions that there should be inside the
earth. The simplest form of the problem is to take a pipe that is
very long and push water through it at high speed. We ask: to push
a given amount of water through that pipe, how much pressure is
needed? No one can analyze it from first principles and the
properties of water. If the water flows very slowly, or if we use
a thick goo like honey, then we can do it nicely. You will find
that in your textbook.What we really cannot do is deal with
actual, wet water running through a pipe. That is the central
problem which we ought to solve some day, and we have not. A poet
once said, "The whole universe is in a glass of wine." We will
probably never know in what sense he meant that, for poets do not
write to be understood. But it is true that if we look at a glass
of wine closely enough we see the entire universe. There are the
things of physics: the twisting liquid which evaporates depending
on the wind and weather, the reflections in the glass, and our
imagination adds the atoms. The glass is a distillation of the
earth's rocks, and in its composition we see the secrets of the
universe's age, and the evolution of stars. What strange array of
chemicals are in the wine? How did they come to be? There are the
ferments, the enzymes, the substrates, and the products. There in
wine is found the great generalization: all life is fermentation.
Nobody can discover the chemistry of wine without discovering, as
did Louis Pasteur, the cause of much disease. How vivid is the
claret, pressing its existence into the consciousness that watches
it! If our small minds, for some convenience, divide this glass of
wine, this universe, into parts—physics, biology, geology,
astronomy, psychology, and so on—remember that nature does not
know it! So let us put it all back together, not forgetting
ultimately what it is for. Let it give us one more final pleasure:
drink it and forget it all!
--
这个世界不是缺少美;
而是缺少发现美的眼睛!
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