Physics 版 (精华区)
发信人: zjliu (秋天的萝卜), 信区: Physics
标 题: 孤子的故事
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (Thu Jul 10 21:36:15 2003)
The Soliton Story
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Background Information on the Development Work of Marconi SOLSTIS
Introducing Marconi SOLSTIS
Marconi's new venture, Marconi SOLSTIS, based just outside Stratford-upon-Avon
, Warwickshire, specializes in research and development to enhance optical com
munications transmission systems. This “virtual” start-up has the speed and
flexibility of a traditional start-up, but with the resources of the Marconi g
lobal organization behind it.
SOLSTIS is developing solutions that will contribute to dramatic increases in
the transmission speeds of optical networks — the long-distance fiber-optic n
etworks that form the backbone infrastructure of today's telecommunications se
rvice providers. At the heart of its pioneering work are “dispersion managed
solitons” — a concept that has already enabled world-record transmission dis
tances — a standard fiber carrying 10 Gbit/s across 16,000 km, for example, a
nd 40 Gbit/s carried over 1,000 km.
This document offers an introduction to SOLSTIS' work and its significance to
the telecommunications networks of the future. It introduces solitons, outline
s the three main adverse influences on optical fiber transmission and describe
s how solitons can alleviate their effects, dramatically improving optical tra
nsmission.
Solitons — a Scotsman's discovery
Solitons are essentially “stable pulses” that travel without changing their
shape: they do not disperse and robustly resist perturbations in the physical
medium that supports them.
The phenomenon was discovered in 1834 by a Scottish engineer, John Scott Russe
ll (1808-1882), while he conducted experiments to determine the most efficient
design for canal boats.
On the Union Canal at Hermiston, close to what is now part of Heriot-Watt Univ
ersity in Edinburgh Scott Russell observed a boat being drawn along 'rapidly'
by a pair of horses. When the boat suddenly stopped he noticed that the bow wa
ve continued forward “at great velocity, assuming the form of a large solitar
y elevation — a well-defined heap of water which continued its course along t
he channel apparently without change of form or diminution of speed.” Intrigu
ed, the young scientist followed the wave on horseback as it rolled on at abou
t eight or nine miles an hour, but after a chase of one or two miles he lost i
t.
Scott Russell was convinced that he had observed an important phenomenon, so h
e built a 30-foot long experimental tank in his garden to continue his studies
of the solitary wave — what he dubbed the “wave of translation”. Unfortuna
tely the implications which so excited him were ill-understood and largely ign
ored by his contemporaries. Scott Russell was remembered instead for his consi
derable successes in ship hull design. He designed, with Brunel, the Great Eas
tern, the Vienna Rotunda and helped to design Britain's first armored warship,
the Warrior. He also conducted the first experimental study of the 'Doppler s
hift' of sound frequency — as experienced as police siren passes by.
It was not until the mid-1960s and the use of digital computers to study non-l
inear wave propagation that the soundness of Scott Russell's early ideas began
to be appreciated. He viewed the solitary wave as a self-sufficient dynamic e
ntity — a “thing” displaying many properties of a particle. It is used toda
y to help formulate the complex dynamic behavior of wave systems throughout sc
ience: from hydrodynamics, plasmas and shock waves to non-linear optics; from
tornadoes to the Great Red Spot of Jupiter.
The Severn Bore is a naturally-occurring soliton — a self-maintaining pulse (
in this case, of water) created by an abrupt change in water level, that propa
gates (moves along) as a single entity up the Severn River and maintains its s
hape for many miles.
A resurgence of interest occurred when it was discovered that many phenomena i
n physics, electronics and biology could be described by the mathematical and
physical theory of the “soliton”, as Scott Russell's wave is now known. This
work has continued and currently includes modeling high temperature supercond
uctors and energy transport in DNA, as well as in the development of new mathe
matical techniques and concepts.
Today, in a field he could never have dreamed of, Scott Russell's research has
hit the big time in the present day fiber-optic communications industry. The
qualities of the “soliton wave” which excited him — the fact that it does n
ot break up, spread out or lose strength over distance — make it ideal for fi
ber-optic communications networks. In these networks, billions of solitons per
second carry information down fiber circuits for telephones, computers and Ca
ble TV. Coincidentally, a fiber-optic cable linking Edinburgh and Glasgow now
runs beneath the very towpath from which John Scott Russell made his initial o
bservations and along the aqueduct that now bears his name.
Influences on fiber
The simplest form of optical communication is a point to point fiber-optic cab
le, with a transmitter at one end and a receiver on the other. A laser light s
hone down the fiber carries data along the fiber's length. The goal is for the
data, on reaching the far end, to emerge identical to how it began.
Unfortunately, optical fiber transmission systems are subject to three main ef
fects that individually and collectively adversely affect how much data — and
how far the data — can be sent down the fiber. These constraints affect sing
le-channel optical transmission and multiple wavelength transmission (Dense Wa
velength Division Multiplexing):
Loss: a fiber-optic cable gradually attenuates (reduces the power of) the ligh
t travelling down it. The signal is absorbed by and scattered by the fiber due
to the low-level impurities and imperfections remaining from the fiber manufa
cturing process. The attenuation rate is typically 0.2 dB/km, or equivalently
a factor of two drop in power after a distance of 15km.
Therefore, in a long-distance cable, regenerators or optical amplifiers are re
quired at periodic intervals to restore the signal. Optical amplifiers (EDFAs)
are relatively simple and highly efficient devices, but they add “amplified
spontaneous emission” (ASE) noise to the signal, which is amplified further i
n subsequent EDFAs. Consequently, the optical signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) degr
ades gradually along the fiber length, and because a minimum SNR is required f
or error-free transmission, the total length of the system is limited.
Dispersion: The speed that the light travels down the fiber depends on the wav
elength. Chromatic dispersion — a ubiquitous and most immediately important t
ype of dispersion — broadens and overlaps the data bits in a signal as it pro
pagates along the fiber. Dispersion is a physical property of the fiber cable.
It is linear — it has a magnitude and can be positive or negative — and its
effect can be reversed exactly. The fiber itself can be designed to exhibit z
ero dispersion at almost any wavelength, for example. Much of the fiber alread
y installed in Europe and North America has zero dispersion at a wavelength of
1.3 microns, but the amplifiers used tend only to work for signal wavelengths
of 1.5 microns and above, so the fiber exhibits an unavoidably large dispersi
on effect.
This is dealt with by compensating for it, through devices known as Dispersion
Compensation Modules (DCMs). After launch into and propagation along the fibe
r, the signal disperses then the DCMs force it to return to its original state
, by compensating for the changes that have occurred.
A telecoms carrier can choose fibers with low inherent dispersion or choose fi
bers (such as standard fiber) that do exhibit dispersion, but compensate for i
t with DCMs.
Another form of dispersion, Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD), is again inher
ent in the optical fiber, but has only become a problem with the advent of hig
her transmission rates. The amount and incidence of PMD depends on many extern
al influences, such as the quality of the fiber and the way the fiber is insta
lled. PMD is unpredictable and its effects are not uniform, so compensating fo
r it is very difficult. There are no commercial PMD compensation devices yet a
vailable and no vendor has a lead to date in coping with PMD.
Non-linearity: A fiber-optic cable comprises a core surrounded by cladding. Th
e core (say, 10 microns wide) has a higher refractive index (usually given the
symbol "n") than the cladding (100 microns wide). The refractive index descri
bes the material's optical density — how much a straw appears to bend when it
is in a beaker of water depends on the optical density of the water.
The greater the intensity of light shone down a fiber-optic core, the higher t
he value of n. In other words, n increases by an amount that is in proportion
to the intensity of the light shone down the fiber. This effect is described a
s “non-linear” because the property of the fiber changes with the intensity
of the light.
Whereas dispersion is linear — doubling the light intensity will not double t
he dispersion effect — non-linearity depends on how light propagates as a fun
ction of the intensity of the power of the light shone down the fiber.
For those interested in the mathematics, the effect on n by the intensity of t
he light (the non-linearity effect) can be described as: n = n0 + n2 I
Any changes in the light intensity, whether more or less, have an instantaneou
s effect on the n. An increase in intensity such as that induced by a short pu
lse will make the fiber more optically dense for a tiny fraction of time.
Non-linearity is not usually beneficial in an optical transmission system. It
has to be managed, just as loss and dispersion need to be managed.
Marconi SOLSTIS is investigating the use of solitons to manage the non-linear
effects on fiber-optic transmission systems.
How two “wrongs” can make a “right”
The fiber non-linearity causes problems in high-speed and long distance optica
l telecommunications systems. Three notable manifestations are known in the “
technical literature” as:
Self-phase modulation
Cross-phase modulation
Four-wave mixing
In a WDM system, for example, several channels at different wavelengths, (also
known as lambdas, l) ideally behave totally independently. It is non-linearit
y that induces cross-talk and four-wave mixing, for example, sucking energy ou
t of one wavelength and into another, or mixing several wavelengths to create
a unwanted signals with another wavelength.
In a conventional pulse of light down a fiber, the pulses are “square” in sh
ape (a pulse = 1), usually alternating with periods of no activity (no pulse =
0), giving the 1 and 0 bit patterns of a data stream. These pulses take place
within a given time “window”, known as a “bit slot”, and at frequent inte
rvals, two or more square pulses occur juxtaposed, producing a constant intens
ity of light for a (tiny) period of time. This form of pulsing is known as NRZ
(Non-Return to Zero) modulation and because of the elongated periods of const
ant light intensity leads to instability and generates noise (modulational ins
tability).
Marconi SOLSTIS uses each data bit differently — a different modulation forma
t taking the form of bell-shaped pulses of light, instead of square-shaped pul
ses. Bearing in mind that solitons are “waves”, work has been carried out fo
r some years to use them to balance the effects of dispersion and non-linearit
y.
In effect, in this context, two “wrongs” make a “right”. Together non-line
arity and dispersion maintain the integrity of the light signal; take away non
-linearity and the pulse will begin to disperse; take away dispersion and the
signal will manifest non-linearity problems, such as self-phase-modulation and
four-wave mixing.
Marconi SOLSTIS is therefore developing ways of managing solitons so that the
dispersion/non-linear effects on an optical transmission system cancel one ano
ther out.
Keeping light on track
Dispersion, as explained above, is a tendency for a light pulse (a wavelength)
to spread out because different parts of the “single” wave (in fact, it is
a spectrum) travel at different speeds. The various spectral components each t
ravel at different rates:
Imagine a group of runners, some tall and fast, some medium and average in spe
ed and some overweight and slow; on a flat (linear) surface, the tall, fast ru
nners will win. The effect of dispersion scales with length — the longer the
race, the further ahead the fastest runners will be.
Now imagine that these runners run on a surface that responds to their abiliti
es, aiming to keep them bunched together. This (non-linear) surface (the prope
rties of the fiber cable) compensates for their different speeds.
So the varying properties of the track surface (non-linearity) is used to comp
ensate for the spreading effect of the runners (dispersion).
One way of avoiding non-linearity in optical fiber is to keep the signals powe
rs as low as possible.
However, non-linearity cannot be eliminated entirely because receivers require
minimum signal powers and SNRs. In particular, Optical transmission systems t
hat can traverse long distances, need lots of signal power/light intensity to
carry increasingly high data rates. Non-linear effects in these long systems a
re therefore unavoidable, and a system that is twice as long will have twice t
he non-linearity.
By ensuring the data bits have the correct shape/size and intensity, Marconi S
OLSTIS can balance dispersion and non-linearity. Much of this is well known, w
ith work continuing since the late 1980s. Now Marconi SOLSTIS is developing so
liton technology to new levels of sophistication, enhancing optical transmissi
on system still further.
Single channel and DWDM problems
Solitons are a great idea but, as signal intensity varies due to the amplifier
s along the route, this leads to jitter and other problems:
In a single-channel system: amplifiers introduce noise which, in turn, leads t
o “jitter”, in which the pulses (the solitons or RZ, bell-shaped pulses) mov
e around in time. NRZ pulses are not as prone to jitter in the same way. Also,
power in an amplified system has regions of great contrast - notably, the poi
nt leading up to an amplifier when signal intensity is at its lowest, then a s
udden surge of power as the signal passes through the amplifier. The signal ba
lance/intensity varies periodically as it passes across the system.
Yet, the solitons are robust to these power fluctuations provided that amplifi
cation happens at short intervals — not giving the signal time to lose so muc
h power that there is a huge contrast before and after amplification. Fiber wi
th large dispersion means periods between amplification must be short. If disp
ersion is made small, amplification periods may be longer, but it gets increas
ingly difficult to manage the effects of non-linearity; using a low-intensity
signal to manage non-linearity risks problems of loss.
The challenges are even greater in a DWDM system. Imagine two solitons in two
channels, each at a different wavelength, which set off together down the fibe
r, then pass through one another due to dispersion. Problems arise because ove
rlapping pulses change e non-linearity, an effect known as cross-phase modulat
ion. Depending on the channel separation, such collisions may happen quickly o
r slowly, but in each case the intensity — already affected by amplification
— will vary, leading to cross-talk and. causing collision-induced jitter.
The solution to these problems lies in dispersion managed solitons, balancing
non-linearity and dispersion effects in either single-channel or DWDM systems.
Dispersion managed solitons
Fiber can be manufactured with a given dispersion (D) value (coefficient) meas
ured in picosecond per nanometer per kilometer (ps/(nm.km). The larger the D,
the bigger the dispersion. The D can also be positive (+D) or negative (-D): p
ositive dispersion means short wavelengths are faster; negative dispersion mea
ns longer wavelengths are faster. Either can exist in a single fiber at differ
ent wavelengths; or different fibers can have the same dispersion but with dif
ferent signs (+ve and -ve).
Dispersion management is the combination of positive and negative dispersion f
ibers such that locally the dispersion alternates sign, but over the entire sy
stem length the total dispersion — the summed product of D and length — is c
lose to zero. It is similar to dispersion compensation but rather than “compe
nsating” for excess dispersion, the phrase “dispersion management” emphasiz
es that the fiber dispersion is manipulated deliberately to result in an optim
ized transmission line. In particular, for solitons the combination of high lo
cal dispersion and low total dispersion, results in the ideal transmission fib
er, in which intra-channel dispersive and nonlinear effects are balanced to pr
oduced stable pulses, while inter-channel nonlinear effects are minimized to e
liminate channel cross-talk.
The stable soliton-like pulses that are supported in dispersion-managed fiber
are known as “dispersion managed solitons”. They have a number of important
attributes which make them the “natural bits” for high-speed optical transmi
ssion. In particular, they achieve The critical goal of balancing dispersion a
nd non-linearity while maintaining signal intensity. A feature known as “powe
r enhancement” — discovered several years ago by the Photonics Research Grou
p at Aston University, some of whose members are now part of the Marconi SOLST
IS team — holds the key. The greater the size of D (the dispersion value of t
he fiber), the greater the signal power and vice versa. Power enhancement — t
hrough maintaining D — enables a system to operate with near-zero average dis
persion, but still get the benefits of signal integrity delivered by the “two
wrongs make a right” combination of dispersion and non-linearity.
Marconi SOLSTIS: the future
Marconi SOLSTIS is developing light sources (transmitters) in a new way, produ
cing solitons (bell-shaped pulses) with the correct profile. When a pulse broa
dens due to dispersion, it does so over time and (for each single pulse) with
variations in frequency (often known as a “chirp” or “whistle”). Producing
the correct profile means ensuring the right shape and chirp in the pulse, pl
us balanced dispersion and non-linearity for both single-channel and DWDM syst
ems.
Conventional optical networks lose 25 dB to 30 dB of signal per span between a
mplifiers, restricting a total span to around 1,000 km. Marconi SOLSTIS' goal
is to achieve far longer distances with the same amplifier span, or enable lon
ger spans over the original distance.
The benefits of dispersion managed fiber are equally available to existing and
new networks, irrespective of the fiber type — standard or Non-Zero Dispersi
on Shifted Fiber — by adding the appropriate dispersion compensation fiber (a
s part of a DCM attached to an amplifier) to achieve the right wave and chirp.
Marconi SOLSTIS brings together academics, engineers and other optical special
ists, within Marconi and elsewhere, from around the world. The new venture is
an exciting, home-grown business from Marconi, whose developments will set new
standards in optical transmission.
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