Physics 版 (精华区)
发信人: Landau (朗道), 信区: Physics
标 题: Nobel Prize 2001: Cornell, Ketterle and Wieman
发信站: 哈工大紫丁香 (2001年10月12日19:39:26 星期五), 站内信件
Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT, and Eric A. Cornell and Carl E. Wieman at the Univ
ersity of Colorado are the winners of the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics. The C
olorado group led by Wieman and Cornell were the first to create a novel pha
se of matter — the Bose–Einstein condensate. Ketterle's group followed har
d on their heels, creating a larger condensate just a few months later. Both
groups have since been major players in this developing field of research.
This year marks the centenary of the Nobel awards: the first Physics Prize i
n 1901 was awarded to R?ntgen for his discovery of X-rays (see looking back)
. The history of the Bose–Einstein condensate spans almost the same timesca
le, and includes many of the 'big names' in physics.
The story begins at the turn of the twentieth century with seminal work by P
lanck and Einstein, introducing the photon and the new quantum theory of mat
ter. In 1924 the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose sent a paper to Einste
in, in which he derived the Planck distribution law for photons emitted from
a thermal body by purely statistical means1. Einstein recognised the import
ance of Bose's work and developed the idea further: Bose–Einstein statistic
s, governing the behaviour of integer-spin particles or 'bosons', was born.
Einstein also realized that the theory predicted the existence of a new stat
e of matter: at very low temperature, the number of energy states available
to a system of particles decreases; eventually a phase transition would occu
r as all particles condense into the lowest-energy, ground state. Physicists
were fascinated by the idea of a system of particles that would behave in e
ffect as a single 'super-atom', but the route to realizing Bose–Einstein co
ndensation was a long one.
Early in the century, superfluidity had been discovered in 4He. In 1938 Frit
z London suggested that superfluidity could be a manifestation of bosonic co
ndensation of the helium atoms (see looking back). Landau, Ginsburg and Bogo
liubov built on this idea to develop a phenomenological theory of superfluid
ity. And just as a superfluid can flow without friction, in a superconductor
current can flow without resistance. Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer also ca
lled on the notion of Bose–Einstein condensation in their microscopic theor
y of superconductivity: electron pairs are analogous to bosonic particles an
d the transition to superconductivity is similar to Bose–Einstein condensat
ion.
Picture: Donna Coveney
Carl Wieman and Eric Cornell (top) led the team that created the first Bose–
Einstein condensate (BEC) of rubidium atoms on 5 June 1995; Wolfgang Ketterl
e (below) and colleagues produced an even larger BEC of sodium atoms only mo
nths later.
But on the practical side, progress was slow. By the mid-1980s, attempts to
create condensates with spin-polarized hydrogen atoms had ended in frustrati
on. These experiments had relied solely on evaporative cooling to achieve co
ndensation. But then Chu, Cohen-Tannoudji and Phillips demonstrated atom coo
ling with lasers — a major development which won them the 1997 Nobel Prize.
Attention turned from hydrogen (which could not be laser-cooled effectively
) to the alkali atoms (which could), many of whose isotopes were suitably bo
son-like.
At JILA, an interdisciplinary research centre in Boulder, Colorado, Carl Wie
man worked out the correct recipe for making a condensate: first cool your r
ubidium atoms in a magneto-optical trap; then transfer them to a magnetic tr
ap, continue evaporative cooling down to very low temperatures (about 20 nK)
and wait for the condensate to form. But there is a problem. In the magneti
c trap, the field vanishes at the centre and atoms in this region can random
ly flip their spin state (Majorana flips). These atoms are then lost, as all
atoms must be in the same spin state to form a Bose–Einstein condensate. E
ric Cornell, working with Wieman, found a solution: he introduced a rotating
magnetic field to the set-up, the time-orbiting potential eliminating the z
ero-field region at the trap centre. On June 5 1995, the first Bose–Einstei
n condensate was formed2.
Meanwhile at MIT, Wolfgang Ketterle was working with sodium atoms and had an
alternative solution to the vanishing-central-field problem: he plugged it
with a strongly repulsive laser beam. Just a few months after the JILA group
, Ketterle and colleagues made their own condensate3 — but with two orders
of magnitude more atoms, opening up the possibilities for exploring the phys
ics of the new matter phase.
Since 1995, Bose–Einstein condensation has generated an active and expandin
g field of research, from probing fundamental aspects of quantum theory, to
potential applications in atom lasers and even quantum computing (see, for e
xample, Bose, Einstein and Chips on last week's physics portal). Bose–Einst
ein condensates are truly a remarkable scientific achievement.
Bose, S. N. Z. Phys. 26, 178 (1924).
Anderson, M. H., Ensher, J. R., Matthews, M. R., Wieman, C. E. & Cornell, E.
A. Science 269, 198–201 (1995).
Davis, K. B., Mewes, M.-O., Andrews, M. R., van Druten, N. J., Durfee, D. S.
, Kurn, D. M. & Ketterle, W. Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 3969–3973 (1995).
and finally…
The 2001 Ig Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to David Schmidt of the Unive
rsity of Massachusetts "for his partial solution to the question of why show
er curtains billow inwards". Presented annually since 1991, the Ig Nobel Pri
zes reward the most improbable research, achievements that "cannot or should
not be reproduced". Also among this year's winners are Dr. Jack and Rexella
Van Impe of Jack Van Impe Ministries, Michigan, scooping the prize in Astro
physics "for their discovery that black holes fulfill all the technical requ
irements to be the location of Hell". The Ig Nobel Prize in Technology is sh
ared by John Keogh, for patenting the wheel in the year 2001, and by the Aus
tralian Patent Office, for granting him Innovation Patent #2001100012.
more about the Nobel Prize in Physics
Press release, information for the public and advanced information on the pr
ize-winning research, from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
The winners' websites: Cornell and Wieman at Colorado, Ketterle at MIT.
Bose-Einstein condensation in Nature
The pick of Nature's papers in this field
The 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
William S. Knowles (USA), Ryoji Noyori (Japan) and K. Barry Sharpless (USA)
On the Nature website: "The winners studied reactions that, under normal cir
cumstances, produce an equal mixture of two products with symmetrical struct
ures. Known as chiral products, these molecules are mirror images of each ot
her, but can have very different properties. The side-effects of the morning
-sickness drug thalidomide, for example, were caused by a rogue chiral twin
of the molecule that the drug's designers had intended to use. Sharpless, No
yori and Knowles have been awarded the prize for developing techniques that
tailor reactions so that only one of the two chiral molecules is produced. T
he techniques are now widely used in industry, particularly to manufacture p
ure pharmaceuticals."
Press release from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
The 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Leland H. Hartwell (USA), R. Timothy Hunt (Great Britain) and Paul M. Nurse
(Great Britain)
In Nature news: "This year's award for physiology or medicine goes to three
biologists who revealed the mysteries of a process central to growth, develo
pment and maintenance of all living organisms: cell division."
Press release from the Karolinska Institutet
The 2001 Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in memory of Alfred Nobel
George A. Akerlof (USA), A. Michael Spence (USA) and Joseph E. Stiglitz (USA
), “for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information”.
Press release from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
The 2001 Nobel Prize in Literature and the Nobel Peace Prize
will be announced on 11 and 12 October respectively, at www.nobel.se
Bose–Einstein condensation in Nature
A selection of Nature papers in this field published in recent years.
letters to nature
Bose-Einstein condensation on a microelectronic chip
W. H?NSEL, P. HOMMELHOFF, T. W. H?NSCH & J. REICHEL
Nature 413, 498–501 (4 October 2001)
| First Paragraph | Full Text | PDF (237 K) |
article
Dynamics of collapsing and exploding Bose-Einstein condensates
ELIZABETH A. DONLEY, NEIL R. CLAUSSEN, SIMON L. CORNISH, JACOB L. ROBERTS, E
RIC A. CORNELL & CARL E. WIEMAN
Nature 412, 295–299 (19 July 2001)
| Summary | Full Text | PDF (241 K) |
letters to nature
Observation of coherent optical information storage in an atomic medium usin
g halted light pulses
CHIEN LIU, ZACHARY DUTTON, CYRUS H. BEHROOZI, LENE VESTERGAARD HAU &
Nature 409, 490–493 (25 January 2001)
| First Paragraph | Full Text | PDF (216 K) |
letters to nature
Many-particle entanglement with Bose-Einstein condensates
A. S?RENSEN, L.-M. DUAN, J. I. CIRAC & P. ZOLLER
Nature 409, 63–66 (4 January 2001)
| First Paragraph | Full Text | PDF (229 K) |
letters to nature
Phase-coherent amplification of atomic matter waves
S. INOUYE, T. PFAU, S. GUPTA, A. P. CHIKKATUR, A. G?RLITZ, D. E. PRITCHARD &
W. KETTERLE
Nature 402, 641–644 (9 December 1999)
| First Paragraph | Full Text | PDF (209 K) |
letters to nature
Preparing topological states of a Bose-Einstein condensate
J. E. WILLIAMS & M. J. HOLLAND
Nature 401, 568–572 (7 October 1999)
| First Paragraph | Full Text | PDF (365 K) |
letters to nature
Four-wave mixing with matter waves
L. DENG, E. W. HAGLEY, J. WEN, M. TRIPPENBACH, Y. BAND, P. S. JULIENNE, J. E
. SIMSARIAN, K. HELMERSON, S. L. ROLSTON & W. D. PHILLIPS
Nature 398, 218–220 (18 March 1999)
| First Paragraph | Full Text | PDF (279 K) |
article
Observation of Feshbach resonances in a Bose-Einstein condensate
S. INOUYE, M. R. ANDREWS, J. STENGER, H.-J. MIESNER, D. M. STAMPER-KURN & W.
KETTERLE
Nature 392, 151–154 (12 March 1998)
| Summary | Full Text | PDF (300 K) |
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Landau:当一个方程的待定参数达到5个,就可以拟合出一只大象。
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